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1、11Cohesion in EnglishThe various kinds of cohesion had been out lined by MAK Halliday in his writings on stylistics and the concept was developed by Ruqayia Hasan in her University of Edinburgh doctoral thesis. Cohesive relations are relations between two or more elements in a text that are independ

2、ent of the structure: for example between a personal pronoun and an antecedent proper name, such as John .he. A semantic relation of this kind may be set up either within a sentence with the consequence that when it crosses a sentence boundary it has the effect of making the two sentences cohere wit

3、h one another. The major function of cohesion is text formation. As defined: text is a unified whole of linguistic items, this unity of text as a semantic whole is source for the concept of cohesion. So first we will explore the concept of text.TextText in linguistics refers to any passage spoken wr

4、itten of whatever length that forms a unified whole. A reader can easily identify whether the passage he is reading is a text or otherwise a collection of unrelated sentences. A text may be: spoken, written, prose, verse, dialogue, monologue, single proverb, a single cry for help or all day discussi

5、on on a committee. A text is a unit of language in use. A grammatical unit that is larger than a sentence. A text is not something that is like a sentence only bigger or larger. It is misleading. Rather text can be best defined as a semantic unit; a unit not of form but of meaning. If it is semantic

6、 unit, we will not expect to find it in structure of a sentence as a grammatical unit as phrase, clause etc.So text is not consist of sentence but it is realized by sentence or encoded in sentences.There are certain objective factors involved that constitute a text.Constituents of Text1. Texture:2.

7、Ties:3. Cohesion1. Texture: Texture is that feature of text which made it a unified whole. According to The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics by P.H. Mathews cohesion and coherence are sources which create texture. Crystal adds informativeness to cohesion and coherence. Example:Wash and core

8、six cooking apples. Put them into a fireproof dish.Here them reference back to six cooking apples to create cohesion between the two sentences. Here we make a presupposition about the relationship between them and six cooking apples but it is not enough only to make a presupposition rather that pres

9、upposition must be satisfied to create texture as shown in the example . These two items are co referential and this coreferentiality creates texture.Here are five cohesive devices to create texture:(i) Reference (ii) Substitution(iii) Ellipses(iv) Conjunction (v) Lexical Cohesion2. Ties The term re

10、fers to a single instance of cohesion.Example: Wash and core six cooking apples. Put them into a fireproof dish.Them and six cooking apples show reference as tie.If we take the Example: Wash and core six cooking apples. Put the apples into a fireproof dish.Here are two ties (i) Reference(ii) Repetit

11、ionCohesive analysis of text is made in terms of tie for a systematic account of its patterns which are a source for texture. Onward we will use the term cohesive tie in place of tie.Here are five different kinds of cohesive ties that are also called cohesive devices: (i) Reference(ii) Substitution(

12、iii) Ellipses(iv) Conjunction(v) Lexical cohesionMAKH and RH have based their model of cohesion on these cohesive ties. A detailed review is given here in the proceeding discussion. 3. CohesionThe Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics by P.H. Mathews (1997) defines cohesion in term of syntactic u

13、nit (sentence). A Dictionary Of Linguistics And Phonetics by David Crystal (1997) defines cohesion in terms of a grammatical unit (words) MAKH and RH (1976) argued that the concept of cohesion is semantic one. For them it refers to relation of meaning that: exists with in text gives the text texture

14、 defines the text as textThis relation of meaning between the elements gives the reader presupposition. This is another way of approaching the notion of cohesion that presupposing and the presupposed give us a presupposition at semantic level as a relation of meaning: The one element presupposes the

15、 other i.e. the one element cannot be decoded without the presupposed.Example:Time fliesYou cant; they fly too quickly. You cant (Ellipses)They (Reference) Fly (Lexical Cohesion) Types OF Cohesion Language is multiple coding system comprising three levels of coding: MeaningThe semantic system Wordin

16、gThe lexicogrammatical system (grammar an vocabulary) Sounding/writingThe phonological and orthographical system Cohesive relation fit into the overall pattern of language. Cohesion is expressed partly through vocabulary and partly through grammar. :1. Grammatical Cohesion(i) Reference(ii) Substitut

17、ion(iii) Ellipses2. Lexical CohesionThe distinction between grammatical cohesion and Lexical cohesion is a matter of degree and MAHK RH suggested not to go in the depth of these overlapping areas and that conjunction is on the border line of the two types mainly it is grammatical but with the lexica

18、l component so we cannot clearly distinguish between the two types. Cohesion and the Linguistics Structure Texture and Structure Structure is one mean of expressing texture. Text consists of one sentence are fairly rare but they can be single sentences as well for ExampleNo smokingWonder never cease

19、But most of the text extends beyond the confines of single sentences so structure is important in a text as structural units such as phrase, clause and sentence which express the unity of text. But our use of term Cohesion refers especially to the non structural text forming relation. They are seman

20、tic relations and the text is a semantic unit. Cohesion With in the TextSince cohesive relation is not concerned with structure, they may be found just as well with in the sentence as between sentences cohesive relation are beyond the sentences boundaries. Cohesion is semantic relation between one e

21、lement in the text and some other element that is crucial for its interpretation. This other element must also be found with in the text. Cohesion refers to the range of possibilities that exist for linking something with what has gone before.The Place of Cohesion in the Linguistics SystemHalliday (

22、1985) has described three major functional semantic components:(i) The Ideational(ii) The Interpersonal (iii) The Textual Table: the place of cohesion in the description of English functional components of semantic systemIdeationalInterpersonalTextualExperiential Logical StructuralNon-structural By

23、Rank:Clause:TransitivityVerbal Group:TenseNominal Group:EpithesisAdverbial Group:circmstanceAll Ranks:Practice and hypotacticrelations(condition, addition, report)By RanksClause:Mood, modality Verbal Group:personNominal Group:attitudeAdverbial Group:commentBy RankClause:themeVerbal Group:voiceNomina

24、l Group:deixisAdverbial Group:conjunctionCross-RankInformationUnit:Informationdistribution,Information focusCohesionReferenceSubstitutionEllipsesConjunctionLexical cohesionConclusionCohesion is a part of text forming component in the linguistics system. It links together the elements that are struct

25、urally unrelated through the dependence of one on the other for its interpretation. Without cohesion the semantic system cannot be effectively activated at all. Cohesive Devices(i) Reference(ii) Substitution(iii) Ellipses(iv) Conjunction(v) Lexical cohesion1. ReferenceThere are certain items in any

26、language which cannot be interpreted semantically in their own right rather they make reference to something else within the text for their interpretation.Here is an example of referenceDoctor Foster went to Gloucester in a shower of rain He stepped in puddle right up to his middle And never went th

27、ere againHere in the above exampleHe refers back to Doctor Foster There refers back to Gloucester He and there show that information about them is retrieved elsewhere within the text. It characterizes a particular type of cohesion which is called reference. The relationship of reference is on semant

28、ic level. The reference items must not match the grammatical item it refers to. What must match or the semantic properties of reference item in relation to the items it refers to. Reference can be sub-categorize as follow ReferenceExophora Endophora Anaphora CataphoraExophoraIt indicates situational

29、 references. Anaphora signals that reference must be made to the context of situation. It is outside the text so it is called anaphoric reference.Example; For hes a jolly good fellow and so say all of us.Here text is not indicating who he is?He can be recognized by the situation in which expression

30、is used. They are not source of cohesion because there presupposition cannot be resolved within the text rather the presupposition is found outside the text. EndophoraIt is a general name for reference within the text. This reference can be of two types.(i) Anaphora: Reference back (ii) Cataphora:Re

31、ference forwardExample:Child: Why does that one come out?Parent: That what Child: That one.Parent: That one what?Child: That lever there that you push to let the water out.That onethat lever (cataphoric reference)That lever that one (anaphoric reference)Types of referenceThere are three types of ref

32、erence (i) Personal Reference (ii) Demonstrative Reference (iii) Comparative ReferenceIt is better first explain the structure of nominal group then proceed towards three types of Reference. It is because we will analyze nominal group for cohesive analysis of these cohesive devices.Nominal GroupThe

33、logical structure of the nominal group (noun phrase) is that it consists of head with optional modifier the modifying elements include some which precede the head and some which follow it. They can be referred as Pre modifier and Post modifier respectively. Example The two high stone wall along the

34、roadside. Wall -HeadThe two high stone-Pre modifier Along the roadside -Post modifierThe modifier can be further subcategorized as:(i) Deictic (ii) Numerative (iii) Epithet (iv) Classifier (v) Qualifier (vi) ThingExample Their famousold red wine. DeicticDeicticepithet classifierthingDeterminer adjec

35、tive adjectiveadjectivenounI. Personal ReferenceIt is a reference by means of function into a speech situation through the category of the person in the form of personal pronouns. The category of persons includes the three classes of personal pronouns. The category of person includes the three class

36、es of personal pronouns. During the communication process the speech roles are assigned to the participants through the person system as:SpeakerAddressee It/one are used as a generalized form for other itemsExampleIf the buyer wants to look the condition of the property, he has to have another surve

37、y. One carried out on his own behalf. Here in the above example the use of personal pronouns is a source of personal referenceBuyerhehisSurveyoneIf possessive pronouns are used, they give two more notions other than Speaker and Addressee. They are that of Possessor and Possessed as I the following e

38、xampleThat new house is Johns. I didnt know it was hisPossessor JohnPossessedhouse shown by the use of his and s The following table shows the system of person for personal reference.Table: Personal Reference ExistentialPossessiveHeadModifierNoun (pronoun) DeterminerI meyouwe us he him she her they

39、them it one mine yoursours his hers theirs its my yours ourhis her their its ones Semantic category Grammatical function Class Person:speaker (only)addressee (s), with/withoutother person(s)speaker and other personother person, maleother person, female other persons, objects object; passage of textg

40、eneralized personII. Demonstrative Reference It is essentially a form of verbal pointing. The speaker identifies or points pout the referent by locating it on scale of proximity. The system of demonstrative pronoun is given in the following table. Table: Demonstrative ReferenceSelective Non-selectiv

41、eModifier Adjunct Modifier determiner adverb determiner this these that those here now there then the Semantic category Grammatical function Class Proximity:near far neutralExamplesLeave that there and come here.Where do you come from?I like the lions and I like the polar bears. These are my favorit

42、es and those are my favorites too. III. Comparative ReferenceHere two types of comparison are given:(i) General Comparison (ii) Particular Comparison(i) General Comparison Here things compared show likeness or unlikeness without considering any particular property. Likeness or unlikeness is referent

43、ial property as something is can be like something else.Example Its the same cat as the one we saw yesterday.Its different cat from the one we saw yesterday(ii)Particular ComparisonHere comparison is made on the scale of quantity or quality it is a matter of degree compare things on this scale. In o

44、ther words we can say it expresses the comparability between things.ExampleTake some more teaWe are demanding higher living standard. There are twice as many people there as the last time.Table: Comparative referenceModifierDeictic /epithet (see below) Submodifier /adjunctsAdjectives Adverb same ide

45、ntical equalsimilar additional other different elseidenticallysimilarly likewise so suchdifferently otherwisebetter, more etc comparative adjectives and quantifiersso more less equallyGrammatical function ClassGeneral comparison:Identitygeneral similaritydifference (i.e. non-identity or similarity)P

46、articular comparison:2. SubstitutionSubstitution is replacement of one linguistic item by another. Ellipses is also a kind of Substitution where one linguistic item is replaced by nothing/ zero. Therefore it is an omission of an item. When we talk about replacement of one item by another, we mean re

47、placement of one word/phrase with another word or phrase. We can say substitution is a relation on lexicogrammatical level. It is used to avoid repetition of a particular item. But while locating cohesion through substitution semantic is involved.ExampleMy axe is too blunt. I mist get a sharper one.

48、You know John already knows. I think everybody does.Substitution is confined to text so exophoric substitution is rare. Most of the substitutions are endophoric and that of anaphoric type. But cataphoric substitution can also found in certain circumstances.Types of Substitution There are three types

49、 of substitution.(i) Nominal Substitution(ii) Verbal Substitution(iii) Clausal substitution1. Nominal SubstitutionThere are three nominal substitutes. one, ones, same.The nominal substitute one/onesThe substitute one/ones always function as head of a nominal group and can substitute only for an item

50、 which is itself head a nominal group.ExampleIve heard some strange stories in my time. But this one was perhaps the strangest one of all. Note: The word other than a substitute can be used as (i) The personal pronoun one(ii) Cardinal numeral one(iii) Determiner one The nominal substitute same Same

51、typically accompanied by the presuppose an entire nominal group.ExampleA: Ill have two poached eggs on toast, please.B: Ill have the sameThe Same can have following expressions as:Say the sameDO the same Be the same 2. Verbal SubstitutionThe verbal substitute is do. This operates as head of a verbal

52、 group. Lexical verb is replaced by do and its position is on the final in the group. Example from AliceThe words did not come the same as they used to do.It can also substitute for a verb plus certain other elements in the clause. ExampleI dont know the meaning of half those language words and what

53、s more, I dont believe you do either. Note: The word Do other than as substituteLexical verb do (he is doing)General verb do(they did a dance)Pro-verb dodo(action), happen(event)Clausal substitutionHere presupposed is not an element within the clause but an entire clause. So and Not are clausal subs

54、titutes ExampleIs there going to be an earth quake? - it says soTypes of Clausal Substitution There are three types of clausal substitution. Substitution of reported clause Substitution of conditional clause Substitution of modalized clause 1. Substitution of Reported ClauseThe reported clausal that

55、 is substituted by so or not is always declarative whatever the mood of the presupposed clause is whether interrogative or imperative.ExampleHas everyone gone home? I hope not. I didnt think so.(I hope not (that) every one has gone home) Is this mango ripe? It seems so. The essential distinction to

56、be made here is that between reports and facts. Reports can be substituted whereas facts can not, reason is that facts are encoded at semantic level while clausal substitute works at lexicogrammatical level only.2. Substitution of Conditional ClauseConditional clause are also substituted by so and n

57、ot especially following if / assuming so / suppose so etc.ExampleEveryone seems to think hes guilty. If so, no doubt hell offer to resign We should recognize the place when we come to it. Yes, but supposing not then what do we do? 3. Substitution of Modalized Clause So and not also occur as substitute for clauses expressing modality.Example May I give you a slice? she said.Certainly not the red queen said.