AP微觀經(jīng)濟梳理
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濟寧孔子國際學校 AP 微觀經(jīng)濟學知識點梳理 I. Basic Economic Concepts 經(jīng)濟學基礎概念 (8–14%) 選擇 A.Scarcity, choice and opportunity cost 稀缺性(概念),選擇(概念),機會成本(計算) a. Scarcity(Unlimited want vs. Limited resources )→Make choices→ Economics b. Opportunity cost (The best choice you give up) include explicit and implicit cost, the slope 公式:Opportunity Cost of doing A=loss in B / gain in A c. Factors of productions are resources. B. Production possibilities curve 生產(chǎn)可能性邊界曲線(識圖,計算) 橫縱坐標軸分別是兩種產(chǎn)品的產(chǎn)量,斜率是機會成本。 a. 曲線彎: law of increasing opportunity cost(生產(chǎn)鞋和電腦的資源不可相互替代);because the resources are not perfectly adaptable. b. 直的: 生產(chǎn)兩種物品的資源可完全替代,也就是說資源完全可以通用,機會成本恒定。 C.Comparative advantage, absolute advantage, specialization and trade 比較優(yōu)勢(計算),絕對優(yōu)勢(計算),專業(yè)化(概念),貿易(概念) a. 絕對優(yōu)勢:more productive. 生產(chǎn)一單位less time or less input。(或者單位time或input生產(chǎn)更多)如果給的是時間,則不用換算 b. 比較優(yōu)勢:lower opportunity cost. xxx/hour 別忘了是與本國生產(chǎn)另一產(chǎn)品的opportunity cost 相比較 c. Specialization and trade can increase productivity and output. Economic growth could be achieved by: Increase in the quantity of resources Increase in the quality of existing resources Technological advancements d. Trade can be good to both countries even if one country has the absolute advantage in all products. Two countries trade only when they have comparative advantage on different good. After trading, countries gain more production at lower cost. D.Economic systems, Property rights and the role of incentives 計劃經(jīng)濟和市場經(jīng)濟(概念),產(chǎn)權(概念),激勵的作用(概念) Command economy:公平equitable,government determines,but sophisticated to allocate properly, lack of incentives for innovation; Free/capitalism economy: private ownership, property rights, free, incentives, competition,供求決定價格,市場決定生產(chǎn)多少消費多少。如果是mixed economy,則market和government共同決定。 F. Marginal analysis 邊際思維(概念) MB>MC, 做這件事。Marginal=additional II. The Nature and Functions of Product Markets 產(chǎn)品市場的特點和功能 (55–70%) A. Supply and demand 供給和需求 (15–20%) 1. Market equilibrium 市場均衡 (先Q后P) Equilibrium quantity 由 Qs 和Qd決定:Qs=Qd D 的變動才會引起P的變動 2. Determinants of supply and demand 供給和需求的影響因素 影響需求 影響供給 Taste Tax /SubsidyCost of input Income Technology Price of substitute good Price of complement good Tax Expectation of price cost of inputs technology and productivity Subsidy/tax Expectation of price Price of other goods 切記:Price變動導致沿著曲線的移動,而不是曲線本身的移動;上表里的因素都是導致曲線本身移動的。 S,D同向移動:左(Q減少,P不定);右(Q增加,P不定) S,D反向移動:內(P增加,Q不定);外(P減少,Q不定) 3. Price control Price ceiling: Creates shortage price floor:最低工資是經(jīng)典例子Creates surplus increase deadweight loss Welfare Analysis=consumer surplus+ producer surplus The market is efficient only when MB=MC, or total welfare is maximized. 4. Elasticity彈性 a. Price elasticity of demand Ed=(%change in quantity demanded of good x)/(%change in the price of good X) b. Price elasticity of supply 一定要分清問的是關于supply還是demand 需求和供給價格彈性算絕對值,不關心正負號;彈性為無窮時,叫Perfectly Elastic完全彈性,彈性大于1時,叫Relatively Elastic,彈性等于1時,叫Unit elastic,彈性小于1時,叫relatively inelastic,彈性等于0時,perfectly inelastic完全剛性。 應用:彈性為elastic時,P降低,Total Revenue會增加,因為Q增加的程度大于P降低的程度;為inelastic時,P降低,Total Revenue會減少,因為Q增加的程度小于P降低的程度。 影響價格彈性的因素:奢侈品的彈性大于1,必需品的彈性小于1;時間長彈性大于1;替代品多彈性大于1;占收入比重大彈性大于1。 c. Income elasticity of demand EI=(%change in quantity demanded of good X)/(%change in income) 需求收入彈性正號表示物品是normal goods,負號表示inferior goods d. Cross-price elasticity of demand Ex,y=(%change in quantity demand of good X)/(%change in price good Y) 交叉需求彈性正號表示A和B為substitution,負號表示A和B為complementary。 5. Consumer surplus, producer surplus and market efficiency剩余和市場效率 消費者剩余=支付意愿–市場價格;生產(chǎn)者剩余=市場價格–生產(chǎn)成本 Market efficiency: MB=MC, Total Surplus最大 Supply do the same(longer time, more elastic) 6. Tax incidence and deadweight loss稅收負擔和無謂損失 1. monopoly Perfectly competitive market Per-unit subsidy/tax MC&ATC both change Only ATC change Lump-sum subsidy/tax Nothing change Nothing change 2.Tax 永遠是向sellers 收的,只是sellers根據(jù)elasticity of demand and supply 的不同來向consumer收錢。 3.Tax or subsidy/negative, positive externality會造成deadweight loss, but shift of supply or demand curve 不會,因為它們形成了新的均衡點。 4.收稅之后,suppliers & demanders charge different money.(one below, one above) 5.在畫deadweight loss的時候,尖點永遠是optimal point Trade Barriers Import when world price is lower. Export when world price is higher. Create deadweight loss TR of government=quantity imported/exported x the tariff C. Theory of consumer choice 消費者選擇理論 (5–10%) 可能大題 1. Total utility and marginal utility 總效用和邊際效用 Utility is the satisfaction or happiness law of diminishing marginal utility 2. Utility maximization: equalizing marginal utility per dollar 邊際效用之比等于價格之比MU1/MU2 =P1/P2,在預算允許的條件下。 3. Income and substitution effects收入效應,替代效應 Income effect:normal: 都多買或少買 substitution effect:normal: 一個多買一個少買 inferior: income decrease 多買,price increase 少買 D. Production and costs生產(chǎn)與成本 (10–15%) 1. Production functions: short and long run短期和長期的生產(chǎn)函數(shù) Short run: only labor variable Long run: all variable 2. Marginal product and diminishing returns邊際產(chǎn)量和邊際產(chǎn)量遞減規(guī)律 MP of A= additional output/ additional input of A Marginal returns start diminishing when MP decreases as L increases FC不變 隨著labor的增加,MC增加(因為生產(chǎn)力下降) MC和MP的圖! 3.Short-run costs短期成本曲線 MC曲線最后是上揚的,是因為diminishing?。铮妗。恚幔颍纾椋睿幔臁。穑颍铮洌酰悖簦a(chǎn)能力全部被利用之后,再增加邊際投入,就會出現(xiàn)邊際產(chǎn)量遞減,邊際成本遞增。 4. Long-run costs and economies of scale長期成本曲線和規(guī)模經(jīng)濟 長期有economies of scale規(guī)模經(jīng)濟,指隨著產(chǎn)量增加ATC不斷下降,反之則是diseconomies of scale規(guī)模不經(jīng)濟, constant returns to scale規(guī)模收益不變指產(chǎn)量變動而ATC不變,或者說投入增加的倍數(shù)與產(chǎn)出增加的倍數(shù)相同。 規(guī)模經(jīng)濟的產(chǎn)生是因為specialization& ability to purchase 5. Cost minimizing input combination成本最小化的要素組合 MPL/PL=MPK/PK E. Firm behavior and market structure企業(yè)行為和產(chǎn)業(yè)組織 (25–35%) 必出大題 1. Profit利潤 a. Accounting profit,economic profit 會計利潤(總收益-顯性成本)和經(jīng)濟利潤(總收益-顯性成本-隱性成本) b. Normal profit 指的經(jīng)濟利潤為0(但依然賺著會計利潤) d. Profit maximization 對各種類型的企業(yè)都適用的利潤最大化條件是當MR=MC時的產(chǎn)量,即使沒有恰好相等的點,也要選擇MR剛剛大于MC的那個產(chǎn)量。 2. Perfect competition完全競爭 Price taker→ No economic profit in the long run a. Profit maximization P=AR是恒等式,因為P=TR/Q,AR=TR/Q。完全競爭市場很特別,企業(yè)獲得利潤最大化的產(chǎn)量是在P=MC=MR=AR時。 b. Short-run supply and shutdown decision 短期的企業(yè)供給曲線是MC曲線在AVC上方的那段;在短期,如果P- 配套講稿:
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