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自考英語(yǔ)(本科 )《現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)》 復(fù)習(xí)大綱

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自考英語(yǔ)(本科 )《現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)》 復(fù)習(xí)大綱

Four short words sum up what has lifted most successful individuals above the crowd: a little bit more.-author-date自考英語(yǔ)(本科 )現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué) 復(fù)習(xí)大綱自考英語(yǔ)(本科 )現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué) 復(fù)習(xí)大綱Chapter 1 Introduction 緒論1 什么是語(yǔ)言學(xué) what is linguistics?1.1 定義 definition Linguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language. 1.2 語(yǔ)言學(xué)的研究范疇 the scope of linguistics a. The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. 把語(yǔ)言作為一個(gè)整體而進(jìn)行的全面的語(yǔ)言學(xué)研究一般稱為普通語(yǔ)言學(xué)。 b. The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch of linguistics called phonetics. 語(yǔ)音學(xué) How speech sounds are produced and classified. c. how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication. how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning. phonology 音位學(xué)/ 音系學(xué) 交際中語(yǔ)音的組合規(guī)律及傳達(dá)意義的方式 d. The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology. 形態(tài)學(xué) how morphemes are combined to form words. 這些符號(hào)通過排列組合而成構(gòu)成語(yǔ)詞,對(duì)于這種排列組合方式的研究構(gòu)成了語(yǔ)言學(xué)研究的另一個(gè)分支,如對(duì)形態(tài)學(xué)的研究。 e. The combination of these words to form permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules. The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies, syntax. 句法學(xué) how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences. f. The study of meaning. semantics 語(yǔ)義學(xué) (in abstraction) g. the study of meaning is conducted in context of use. pragmatics 語(yǔ)用學(xué) h. the study of language with reference to society. sociolinguistics. 社會(huì)語(yǔ)言學(xué) i. the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind. psycholinguistics 心里語(yǔ)言學(xué) j. the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning. applied linguistics1.3 語(yǔ)言學(xué)研究中的一些基本概念 some important distinctions in linguistics. 1.3.1 規(guī)定性和描述性 prescriptive vs. descriptive if a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use;如果一種語(yǔ)言學(xué)的研究是對(duì)人們實(shí)際使用中的語(yǔ)言進(jìn)行的描述和分析描述性的descriptive if it aims at to lay down rules for “correct” behaviour to tell people what they should say and what they should not say 如果某種研究的目的是在對(duì)所謂“正確的”行為制定一些規(guī)則規(guī)定性的prescriptive 現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)通常是描述性的,與“語(yǔ)法”的語(yǔ)言研究是大相徑庭的1.3.2 共時(shí)性和歷時(shí)性 synchronic vs. diachronic the description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. 現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)中,共時(shí)性研究比歷時(shí)性研究更受人青睞。1.3.3 口頭語(yǔ)和書面語(yǔ) speech and writing Speech and writing are two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. In the past, traditional grammarians tended to over-emphasize the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence. 1.3.4 語(yǔ)言和言語(yǔ) langue and parole (both from French words) 瑞士語(yǔ)言學(xué)家F. de索緒爾 langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the member of a speech community. 語(yǔ)言,某一特定的語(yǔ)言社區(qū)中的所有成員所共有的那種抽象的語(yǔ)言系統(tǒng); parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. 言語(yǔ),在語(yǔ)言實(shí)際應(yīng)用中的具體體現(xiàn)。 語(yǔ)言習(xí)慣和規(guī)則;言語(yǔ)對(duì)這些習(xí)慣和規(guī)則的遵守和實(shí)際應(yīng)用 言語(yǔ)不過是一些亂七八糟的語(yǔ)言材料,很難對(duì)此作系統(tǒng)的研究; 語(yǔ)言學(xué)家們的任務(wù)是從言語(yǔ)中把語(yǔ)言提取出來(lái),發(fā)現(xiàn)指導(dǎo)語(yǔ)言實(shí)際應(yīng)用的規(guī)則,并使之成為語(yǔ)言學(xué)研究的主題。1.3.5 語(yǔ)言能力和語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用 competence and performance 美國(guó)語(yǔ)言學(xué)家-喬姆斯基 (和語(yǔ)言,言語(yǔ)類似的概念) competence, the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language 能力是一個(gè)理想的語(yǔ)言使用者所具有的有關(guān)其所使用語(yǔ)言規(guī)則的知識(shí); performance, the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 運(yùn)用則指這種知識(shí)在語(yǔ)言交際過程中的實(shí)際運(yùn)用。 索緒爾對(duì)語(yǔ)言的研究采取的是社會(huì)學(xué)的觀點(diǎn),語(yǔ)言是社會(huì)習(xí)慣的產(chǎn)物; 喬姆斯基則從心理學(xué)的角度來(lái)審視語(yǔ)言現(xiàn)象,能力是每個(gè)說(shuō)話者個(gè)體的心里特征。2 什么是語(yǔ)言? what is language? 2.1 語(yǔ)言的定義 definitions of language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 語(yǔ)言是用于人類交際目的的一套任意的有聲符號(hào)系統(tǒng)。 (1) language is a system (2) language is arbitrary (3) language is vocal (4) language is human specific 2.2 語(yǔ)言的甄別性特征 design features 甄別性特征(識(shí)別性特征) 人類語(yǔ)言和其他動(dòng)物的交際系統(tǒng)區(qū)別開來(lái)的那些特征,其中五種: a. 語(yǔ)言的任意性(武斷性)arbitrariness b. 語(yǔ)言的創(chuàng)造性 productivity c. 語(yǔ)言的雙重性 duality d. 語(yǔ)言的位移性 displacement e. 語(yǔ)言的文化傳遞性 cultural transmissionChapter 2 Phonology音系學(xué)1 語(yǔ)言的聲音媒介 the phonic medium of language 口語(yǔ)和書面語(yǔ)是語(yǔ)言作為交際工具所使用的兩大主要媒介和物質(zhì)手段;口語(yǔ)比書面語(yǔ)更為基本; 對(duì)于語(yǔ)言學(xué)家而言,對(duì)聲音的研究遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)比對(duì)書面語(yǔ)的研究重要得多,只關(guān)注人類器官發(fā)出的聲音。2 語(yǔ)音學(xué) phonetics 2.1 什么是語(yǔ)音學(xué) what is phonetics phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; 對(duì)語(yǔ)言聲音媒介的研究; 主要研究對(duì)象是世界上所有的語(yǔ)言中出現(xiàn)過的一切聲音 從三個(gè)角度來(lái)審視語(yǔ)音現(xiàn)象: (1) 發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué) articulatory phonetics (from the speakers point of view)how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds (2) 聽覺語(yǔ)音學(xué) auditory phonetics (from the hearers point of view)how the sounds are perceived by the hearer (3) 聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué) acoustic phonetics It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another 以上三個(gè)分支里,建立歷史最長(zhǎng),發(fā)展最完善的就是發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué)。 聲音語(yǔ)言學(xué)家發(fā)現(xiàn)證實(shí)了一些重要的事實(shí)。 2.2 語(yǔ)言的發(fā)音器官 organs of speech the articulatory apparatus器官 of a human being : pharyngeal cavity(the throat); voicing voiceless the oral cavity (the mouth); the nasal cavity (the nose) 2.3 語(yǔ)音的正字標(biāo)音法寬式和嚴(yán)式標(biāo)音法orthographic representation of speech sounds broad and narrow transcriptions 國(guó)際音標(biāo) International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) 人類所發(fā)出的語(yǔ)音經(jīng)常會(huì)在特別細(xì)微的方面有所不同,國(guó)際音標(biāo)向其使用者提供了一套“變音符號(hào)”diacritics的附加符號(hào),作為字母標(biāo)音方法的補(bǔ)充,以標(biāo)示緊靠字母本身不能解決的那些微妙的語(yǔ)音差別 the transcription with letter-symbols only broad transcription the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics narrow transcription2.4 英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)音的分類 classification of English speech sounds 分為元音vowels和輔音consonants兩大類 元音的定義 元音和輔音的區(qū)別2.4.1 英語(yǔ)輔音的分類 classification of English consonants in terms of manner of articulation (按照發(fā)音方法)stops爆破音; fricatives擦音; affricates塞擦音; liquids流音; nasals鼻音; glides滑音 in terms of place of articulation (按照發(fā)音位置) bilabial雙唇音; labiodental唇齒音; dental齒音; alveolar齒齦音; palatal鄂音; velar軟腭音; glottal喉音 2.4.2 英語(yǔ)的元音分類 classification of English vowels a. the individual vowels / monophthongsthe position of the tongue in the mouth(按照口中舌頭的位置) front; central and backthe openness of the mouth (按照口張開的程度) close vowels閉元音, semi-close vowels半閉元音, semi-open vowels半開元音, and open vowels開元音 the shape of the lips (按照唇齒形狀) rounded or not rounded the length of the vowels (按照聲音的長(zhǎng)度) long vowels ; short vowels b. diphthongs 雙元音3音位學(xué) phonology 3.1 音位學(xué)和語(yǔ)音學(xué) phonology and phonetics 語(yǔ)音學(xué)研究的具有一般的性質(zhì),它所感興趣的人類語(yǔ)音中所涉及的:所有語(yǔ)音現(xiàn)象;發(fā)音方法,相互之間的區(qū)別,分別具有什么樣的語(yǔ)音特征,如何進(jìn)行分類等; 音位學(xué)所感興趣的是某一特定的語(yǔ)言中的語(yǔ)音系統(tǒng),旨在揭示: 一種語(yǔ)言中的語(yǔ)音形成組合的方式,以及它們是如何在語(yǔ)言交際活動(dòng)中被用來(lái)傳到意義的。 3.2 音素、音位和音位變體 phone, phoneme, allophone phone, the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. 音素,我們?cè)谟靡环N語(yǔ)言講話時(shí)所使用的聲音。音素是一個(gè)語(yǔ)音單位或切分成分。phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning.音位學(xué)關(guān)心的是能夠區(qū)別意義的語(yǔ)音現(xiàn)象。 音位學(xué)中最基本的單位叫音位phoneme,這是一種具有意義甄別價(jià)值的單位,也是一個(gè)抽象單位。 音位不是一個(gè)具體的聲音,而是一些語(yǔ)音區(qū)別特征的集合。 在實(shí)際的會(huì)話中,音位總是以某個(gè)音素的形式得以體現(xiàn)出來(lái)的。 在不同的語(yǔ)言環(huán)境中, 能夠代表同一個(gè)音位的不同音素叫做該音位的音位變體allophone。 音位也可以另外定義為,在某一特定的語(yǔ)言中, 語(yǔ)音相似卻不相互構(gòu)成對(duì)比的一組聲音。 一個(gè)音位的選擇不是隨便或偶然的,它是由規(guī)則制約的。 音位是語(yǔ)言系統(tǒng)中最小的切分成分,還可以進(jìn)一步分析區(qū)別性特征 區(qū)別性特征是與某種特定語(yǔ)言相聯(lián)系的。3.3 音位對(duì)立,互補(bǔ)分布和最小對(duì)立對(duì) Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair 語(yǔ)音上相似的聲音可能會(huì)有兩種相連的方式。 如果它們是兩個(gè)不同的音位,就會(huì)構(gòu)成對(duì)比; 如果是同一個(gè)音位的音位變體話,那么它們?cè)谝饬x上就不構(gòu)成對(duì)比。 These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.來(lái)自相同音位的音位變體就具有互補(bǔ)分布的特點(diǎn) 語(yǔ)言學(xué)家面對(duì)一種陌生語(yǔ)言的時(shí)候,首先找出傳達(dá)意義的聲音是什么,也就是要找出形成那種語(yǔ)言的所特有的聲音系統(tǒng)的音位是什么。確定某種語(yǔ)言音位的一個(gè)根本方法就是尋找最小對(duì)立對(duì)。minimal pairs e.gpill-bill bill-kill kill-dill dill-gill 可以確定 /p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /g/ 是英語(yǔ)中的音位3.4 幾條音位規(guī)則 some rules in phonology 3.4.1 序列規(guī)則 sequential rules 3.4.2 同化規(guī)則 assimilation rules 3.4.3 省略規(guī)則 deletion rule 3.5 超切分特征重音,聲調(diào),語(yǔ)調(diào) Suprasegmental features stress, tone, intonation音位具有區(qū)別意義作用的語(yǔ)音切分部分。但是在兩個(gè)或者更多的音位切分序列層面上同樣可以找到一些識(shí)別性特征。這些發(fā)生在切分層面以上的音位特征叫超切分特征。suprasegmental features 3.5.1 stress 3.5.2 tone 3.5.3 intonation Chapter 3 Morphology 形態(tài)學(xué)1 定義 definition Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 形態(tài)學(xué)是語(yǔ)法學(xué)的一個(gè)分支,它研究的是單詞的內(nèi)在結(jié)構(gòu)及單詞的構(gòu)成規(guī)律。形態(tài)學(xué)可以進(jìn)一步被劃分為兩個(gè)更小的分支:屈折形態(tài)學(xué)inflectional morphology和詞匯形態(tài)學(xué)(派生形態(tài)學(xué))lexical or derivational morphology 前者研究單詞的屈折變化;后者研究構(gòu)詞法2 詞素 morpheme 2.1 詞素:語(yǔ)言中最小的意義單位 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language 正如音位是音系學(xué)研究中的基本單位一樣,詞素是形態(tài)學(xué)研究中的基本單位。2.2 詞素的類型 types of morphemes 2.2.1 自由詞素 free morphemes free morphemes, which are independent units of meaning and can be used by themselves. bound morphemes, cannot be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently.2.2.2. 黏著詞素 bound morphemes bound morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word. bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes. root, a root is often seen as a part of word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must by combined with another root or an affix to form a word. affixes, affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. Such a way of word-formation is called derivation派生法 and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative派生詞. the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem詞干 A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself. according to its position in the new word, affixes are divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes 前綴會(huì)對(duì)詞根的意思有所修改,但卻不致改變?cè)瓉?lái)單詞的詞類the part of speech。 后綴修改原有的單詞的意義,很多情況下會(huì)使原有單詞的詞類the part of speech發(fā)生變化。2.2.3 形態(tài)學(xué)原則 morphological rules 3 復(fù)合法 compounding 同派生法一樣,復(fù)合法也是英語(yǔ)中相當(dāng)普遍和及其重要的一種構(gòu)詞法。 3.1 復(fù)合詞的類型 types of compound words 3.2 復(fù)合詞的特征 features of compounds Chapter 4 Syntax 句法學(xué) Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. 句法學(xué)是語(yǔ)言的一個(gè)分支,它研究的是語(yǔ)言的句子結(jié)構(gòu)。 句子是根據(jù)詞的特定排列順序所構(gòu)成的,順序排列恰當(dāng)?shù)木渥颖徽J(rèn)為是合乎語(yǔ)法的句子, 合乎語(yǔ)法的句子是按照一套句法規(guī)則而構(gòu)成的。在本章:a. a system of rules that govern the formation of grammatical sentences.句法學(xué)概述:它是一套規(guī)則系統(tǒng),用來(lái)指導(dǎo)構(gòu)成合乎語(yǔ)法的句子。b. examine the composition of sentences in terms of category and structure, as well as the structural constituency and syntactic categories of smaller structural units.再?gòu)姆懂牶徒Y(jié)構(gòu)以及作為更小單位的結(jié)構(gòu)成分和句法類型句子的構(gòu)成進(jìn)行分析。c.名詞詞組和動(dòng)詞之間的語(yǔ)法關(guān)系grammatical relations;d.說(shuō)話者內(nèi)在的internalized以短語(yǔ)結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則phrase structure rules ,X-標(biāo)桿理論X-bar theory以及移位規(guī)則movement rules為核心的組合規(guī)則系統(tǒng)。e. conclude by introducing the current principles-and-parameters paradigm in syntactic exploration of Universal Grammar.當(dāng)今句法研究中的普遍語(yǔ)法原則及參數(shù)理論。1 句法是規(guī)則系統(tǒng) syntax as a system of rules a. 句法學(xué)由一套抽象的規(guī)則組成,這些規(guī)則能夠使詞相互結(jié)合構(gòu)成合乎語(yǔ)法的句子。b. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized knowledge of a language speaker know as linguistic competence.句法規(guī)則在所有人類語(yǔ)言中都普遍存在,這些規(guī)則包括講某種語(yǔ)言的人內(nèi)在的語(yǔ)言知識(shí)體系,這種語(yǔ)言知識(shí)體系被稱作語(yǔ)言能力。c. 任何語(yǔ)言的句法規(guī)則都是有限的。2 句子結(jié)構(gòu) sentence structure 2.1 句子的基本結(jié)構(gòu) the basic components of a sentence a. A sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase. b. The referring expression被指示對(duì)象 is grammatically called subject. 2.2 句子的類型 types of sentences three types: simple sentence; coordinate sentence / compound sentence; complex sentence 2.2.1 簡(jiǎn)單句 clause 子句,簡(jiǎn)單句中只含有一個(gè)子句,有一個(gè)主語(yǔ)一個(gè)謂語(yǔ),該句子單獨(dú)構(gòu)成句子。 finite clause 定式子句,含有一個(gè)主語(yǔ)和一個(gè)限定動(dòng)詞同時(shí)在結(jié)構(gòu)上能夠獨(dú)立存在的句子。2.2.2 并列句2.2.3 復(fù)合句 embedded clause從屬子句, 被合并的句子或者居于從屬地位的句子 the incorporated, or subordinate, clause matrix clause主句, 包納從屬子句的句子。 subordinator 從屬連詞 2.3 句子的線性排列與層次結(jié)構(gòu) The linear and hierarchical structures of sentences linearly structure and hierarchically structure 2.3.1 句子的線性次序排列 the linear word order of a sentence 2.3.2 句子的層次結(jié)構(gòu) the hierarchical structure of a sentence e.g. The student / likes / the new linguistics professor.2.3.3 句子的結(jié)構(gòu)樹形圖 tree diagrams of sentence structure branching nodes 分叉點(diǎn)3 句法類型 syntactic categories Words and phrases are organized according to syntactic categories句法類型 they belong to. Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word (lexical category詞類) or a phrase (phrasal category詞組類) that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject in a sentence. 3.1 詞類 lexical categories 3.2 詞組類 phrasal categories 4 語(yǔ)法關(guān)系 grammatical relations grammatical relations, Our linguistic knowledge includes an awareness of a distinction between the structural and logical functional relations of constituents. subject of 相對(duì)于的主語(yǔ); direct object of 相對(duì)于直接賓語(yǔ) structural subject, structural object 結(jié)構(gòu)主語(yǔ),結(jié)構(gòu)賓語(yǔ) logical subject, logical object 邏輯主語(yǔ),邏輯賓語(yǔ)5 組合規(guī)則 combinational rules 5.1 短語(yǔ)結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則 phrase structure rules SNP VP phrase structure rule or rewrite rule 5.2 短語(yǔ)結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則的循環(huán)性 the recursive-ness of phrase structure rules 這些規(guī)則由于他們具有的循環(huán)特征recursive properties,可以生成無(wú)數(shù)個(gè)長(zhǎng)度無(wú)限的句子來(lái)。 5.3 X-標(biāo)桿理論 X-bar theory head 核心詞 XP必須包含X,X分別表示:N,V,A,P; XPX Det-specifier指示語(yǔ), N-the head核心詞, S-the complement補(bǔ)語(yǔ) ” double bar但標(biāo)桿 single bar雙標(biāo)桿 X-bar theory6 句法位移和位移規(guī)則 syntactic movement and movement rules 短語(yǔ)結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則解釋了句法類型如何構(gòu)成以及句子是怎樣生成的。然而有些句法現(xiàn)象短語(yǔ)結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則卻無(wú)法描述。例如,涉及位移的句子。syntactic movement 句法位移,受轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)則的這些規(guī)則支配的; transformational rules 轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)則,轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)則的運(yùn)用改變句子的句法表達(dá)方式。 6.1 名詞詞組位移與WH位移 NP-movement and WH-movement 句法位移主要有兩種:postponing后移 preposing 前移 6.2 其他類型的位移 other types of movement 一般疑問句(general question)引起句法位移: AUX-movement 組動(dòng)詞位移 6.3 深層結(jié)構(gòu)與表層結(jié)構(gòu) D-structure and S-structure 在正式的語(yǔ)言研究中,前移和后移的表現(xiàn)形式通稱為:D-structure and S-structure 深層結(jié)構(gòu),表層結(jié)構(gòu) 語(yǔ)法結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則+詞匯 深層結(jié)構(gòu) 位移規(guī)則 表層結(jié)構(gòu)6.4 移動(dòng)一條普遍規(guī)則 Move a general movement rule 如同X-標(biāo)桿規(guī)則可以將各種短語(yǔ)結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則高度概括起來(lái)一樣,句法位移也有一條普遍規(guī)則來(lái)解釋句法成分位移現(xiàn)象: Move or Move Alpha 7 普遍語(yǔ)法理論 toward a theory of Universal Grammar / UG principles-and-parameters theory 原則及參數(shù)理論 general principles 綜合原則 7.1 普遍語(yǔ)法原則 general principles of Universal Grammar Case Condition 格條件 Adjacency Condition 毗鄰條件 7.2 普遍語(yǔ)法參數(shù) the parameters of Universal Grammar 同英語(yǔ)類似的語(yǔ)言,毗鄰參數(shù)值A(chǔ)djacency Parameter設(shè)定為+strict adjacency“正絕對(duì)毗鄰值”,而類似法語(yǔ)的語(yǔ)言,毗鄰參數(shù)值則設(shè)定為-strict adjacency“負(fù)絕對(duì)毗鄰值。Chapter 5 Semantics 語(yǔ)義學(xué)1 什么是語(yǔ)義學(xué) what is semantics? Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning. 對(duì)語(yǔ)言意義的研究2 語(yǔ)義研究的幾種主要理論 some views concerning the study of meaning 2.1 命名論 the name theory 只適用于名詞,而且有一些指的是現(xiàn)實(shí)世界中并不存在的事物,還有一些名詞不指具體事物,而指抽象概念。 2.2 意念論 the conceptualist view 語(yǔ)言形式與其事物之間的關(guān)系不是直接的,而是間接的。語(yǔ)義三角。 2.3 語(yǔ)境論 contextualism 意義源于語(yǔ)境,存在于語(yǔ)境。語(yǔ)境有兩種:情景語(yǔ)境和上下文。 2.4 行為主義論 behaviorism 這種理論和語(yǔ)境論比較接近,和人們對(duì)心里學(xué)的興趣有關(guān)。3 詞匯意義 lexical meaning 在討論語(yǔ)義時(shí),既要考慮詞匯意義,又要考慮句子意義。先從詞匯意義入手;在討論詞與詞的意義關(guān)系之前的概念: 3.1 意義和所指 sense and reference Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. 意義,是詞匯內(nèi)在的、抽象的、游離于語(yǔ)境之外的意義,是詞匯所有特征的集合。這個(gè)意義正是詞典編纂者感興趣的。 Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 所指,是詞匯所指稱的客觀世界中的事物,所指討論的是語(yǔ)言形式和非語(yǔ)言世界之間的關(guān)系。 3.2 主要意義關(guān)系 major sense relations3.2.1 同義關(guān)系 synonymy synonyms 同義詞:方言(dialectal synonyms);語(yǔ)體(stylistic synonyms); 情感意義或評(píng)價(jià)意義不同的(stylistic that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning); 用于不同搭配的(collocational synonyms);語(yǔ)義上有一定差別的(semantically different synonyms)3.2.2 多義關(guān)系 polysemy polysemy 多義詞 從歷史上看,一詞多義可以看做是詞義的發(fā)展和變化。3.2.3 同音/同形異議關(guān)系 homonymy homophones 同音異議詞 homographs 同形異議詞 complete homonymys 完全同音同形異議詞(多義詞的各種意義之間有聯(lián)系,而完全同音同形異議詞出于巧合)3.2.4 上下義關(guān)系 hyponymy superordinate上義詞hyponyms 下義詞 co-hyponyms 并列下義詞,具有同一個(gè)上義詞的下義詞叫做并列下義詞。3.2.5 反義關(guān)系 antonymy antonyms 反義詞 可分等級(jí)的(gradable antonyms);互補(bǔ)性(complementary antonyms);關(guān)系(relational antonyms)4 句子間的語(yǔ)義關(guān)系 sense relations between sentences 兩個(gè)句子:同義,對(duì)立,蘊(yùn)含,預(yù)設(shè),自相矛盾,語(yǔ)義變體5 意義分析 analysis of meaning 5.1 語(yǔ)義成分分析法一種詞義分析法 componential analysis a way to analyze lexical meaning e.g. man = +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE 5.2 述謂結(jié)構(gòu)分析一種句義分析法 predication analysis a way to analyze sentence meaning 句義包含兩個(gè)方面:語(yǔ)法意義和語(yǔ)義意義 句子的語(yǔ)法意義,它的語(yǔ)法性,即語(yǔ)法合理性。 句子在語(yǔ)義上是否有意義是受被稱為選擇限制的規(guī)則支配的,即對(duì)詞項(xiàng)間的相互搭配規(guī)則進(jìn)行限制。 selectional restrictions predication analysis 述謂分析句子分成主語(yǔ),謂語(yǔ)predicate和修飾語(yǔ)attribute; 句子語(yǔ)義分析中的基本單位叫做述謂結(jié)構(gòu)predication,它是句子意義的抽象化。 述謂結(jié)構(gòu)由論元arguments和謂詞predicate構(gòu)成。Chapter 6 Pragmatics 語(yǔ)用學(xué)1 什么是語(yǔ)用學(xué) what is pragmatics? 1.1 定義 definition Pragmatics, it is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 語(yǔ)用學(xué)研究語(yǔ)言使用者是如何運(yùn)用語(yǔ)句進(jìn)行成功交際的。 1.2 語(yǔ)用學(xué)和語(yǔ)義學(xué) pragmatics vs. semantics 語(yǔ)用學(xué)和語(yǔ)義學(xué)的根本區(qū)別在于是否考慮語(yǔ)境。不考慮語(yǔ)境,語(yǔ)義研究屬于傳統(tǒng)的語(yǔ)義學(xué)范圍;考慮語(yǔ)境,語(yǔ)義研究就成了語(yǔ)用學(xué)的研究范圍。 1.3 語(yǔ)境 context context, it is generally considered as constituted組成 by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 1.4 句子意義和話語(yǔ)意義 sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 句子意義是抽象的,是不依賴語(yǔ)境的;而話語(yǔ)意義是具體的,是依賴與語(yǔ)境的。 話語(yǔ)意義基于句子意義,是句子意義在特定交際情境或者語(yǔ)境中的具體體現(xiàn)。2 語(yǔ)言行為理論 speech act theory 約翰-奧斯汀,從哲學(xué)意義上,對(duì)語(yǔ)言交際的本質(zhì)進(jìn)行解釋,目的在于回答“用語(yǔ)言干什么”: 表述句constatives,施為句performatives 后來(lái)奧斯汀放棄了上述區(qū)分,他認(rèn)為表述可是一種可以通過語(yǔ)言來(lái)實(shí)施的行為,建立另一種模式, 說(shuō)話人可以同時(shí)完成三種行為: 言內(nèi)行為(表達(dá)字面意義的行為) locutionary act言外行為(表達(dá)說(shuō)話人意圖)illocutionary act 哲學(xué)家們最感興趣的,舍爾對(duì)其進(jìn)行分5類: 闡述類representatives;指令類directives;承諾類commissives;表達(dá)類expressives;宣告類declarations e.g. 指令類,讓做言后行為(由話語(yǔ)所帶來(lái)的結(jié)果或變化) perlocutionary act 3 會(huì)話原則 principle of conversation 參與會(huì)話的人首先得愿意合作,這條基本原則叫做合作原則Cooperative Principle。 這條基本原則包括4種準(zhǔn)則maxims:數(shù)量準(zhǔn)則the maxim of quantity;質(zhì)量準(zhǔn)則 the maxim of quality;關(guān)聯(lián)準(zhǔn)則the maxim of relation; 方式準(zhǔn)則the maxim of manner 對(duì)于任何一種合作原則的違法,都使語(yǔ)言變得間接會(huì)話含義conversational implicatures Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics 歷史語(yǔ)言學(xué) historical linguisticsHistorical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics studies language change語(yǔ)言變化. Historical linguistics are concerned with the historical development歷史變遷 of language and the processes involved in language change. Historical linguistics look into the nature of language change and causes that led to language change. They also explore methods and techniques with which they can reconstruct linguistic history重建語(yǔ)言史 and establish the relationship between languages that belong to the sa

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