11英語專業(yè)跨文化交際課程論文A Study of Social Pragmatic Failures in Cross-cultural CommunicationAbstract: Pragmatic failure is one of the main sources that give rise to cross-cultural communication breakdowns. Due to the different interpretations of politeness between Chinese and English cultures, pragmatic failures often exist in cross-cultural communications, resulting in communication breakdowns. This paper focuses on a study of politeness in its manifestations in Chinese and English cultures. It provides basic theories of politeness, cross-cultural communication and cross-cultural pragmatic failure, and points out the differences in interpretation of politeness between Chinese and English cultures, with the purpose of exploring the resources of those differences, so as to avoid pragmatic failures of politeness and effect successful cross-cultural communications. In brief, the findings of this paper support the view that pragmatic failures do exist in greeting, accepting gifts, table manner and many other aspects of daily communication because of peoples different interpretations of politeness between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, it is of great necessity to understand cultural differences, so as to avoid misunderstandings and miscommunications. Key Word: politeness; cross-cultural pragmatic failure; cultural differences摘要：語用失誤是造成跨文化交際障礙的主要原因之一。由于中西方對于禮貌這一概念的理解不同，在日常的跨文化交際中，語用失誤時有發(fā)生，進(jìn)而影響了交際效果。本文闡述了禮貌、跨文化交際、跨文化交際語用失誤等基本概念，列舉中英不同文化背景下，人們對禮貌這一概念的不同解讀，并進(jìn)一步探索了這些差異的根源，以期能使人們在跨文化交際中盡量避免禮貌語用失誤，順利實現(xiàn)有效的跨文化交際?？偟膩碚f，本文的研究證實了在中西方的日常交際中，由于對禮貌解讀的不同，雙方在會晤、接受禮物、餐桌禮儀等諸多方面存在語用失誤現(xiàn)象，因此，人們有必要了解認(rèn)識文化間的差異，有效地避免跨文化交際中的誤解或障礙。關(guān)鍵詞：禮貌；跨文化交際語用失誤；文化差異1. IntroductionRecently, there is a wave of globalization due to factors including mass access to internet, globalization of industry, and expansion of educational exchanges and so on. New technologies, growth of the worlds population, and shift in the global economic area have all contributed to the increase in cross-cultural communication. Therefore, cross-cultural communication has become indispensable today. Language used by human beings is the most basic tool for communication, which plays a crucial role in the process of human historical development. We use words to persuade, to exchange ideas, to express views, to seek information, and to express feelings. We made cultural choices when we are using human language to communicate with other people. Culture shapes our ideas and plays a crucial role on influencing our way of using language. At the same time, language can also be considered as a window to the culture. They are closely connected with each other and can never be separated. Therefore, we should not only learn linguistic skills well but also know much knowledge about foreign cultures if we want to conquer a foreign language and become an effective communicator. But the fact is that many people didnt pay much attention to the cultural backgrounds and used words to communicate with others in an inappropriate way and inappropriate occasion. In this way, the social pragmatic failures often occur during the cross-cultural communication.Because of the fierce conflicts between the popularity of cross-cultural communication and the frequently happening communication barriers, the factors affecting communication are drawing much more attention from the researchers. In the past two decades, there has been an increasing interest in the study of pragmatic failures in cross-cultural communication. Cross-cultural social pragmatic failures have been an important area of pragmatics and cross-cultural communication studies. The social pragmatic failures are mainly caused by cultural differences and lack of awareness about this issue. Hence, we have to figure out some solutions to deal with it, such as strengthen cultural awareness, avoid negative stereotype and cultivate cross-cultural communication competence. Only in this way can we achieve a satisfied result from the intercultural communication2. Theoretical BackgroundsIn order to have a comprehensive understanding of social pragmatic failures during the inter-cultural communication, wed better learn some background information about culture. The knowledge about definition of culture, cross-cultural communication, and the social pragmatic failures and the relationship between language and culture are ought to be familiar to us.2.1 Definition of CultureThe word “culture” is a large and evasive concept, very complex and difficult to define. There are hundreds of definitions for culture. Here I present only two concepts which I favor most. The one is “A culture is a collection of beliefs, habits, living patterns, and behaviors which are held more or less in common by people who occupy particular geographic areas.” (D.Brown, 40) The other is explained in a more detailed way: “culture is mens medium; there is not one aspect of human life that is not touched and altered by culture. This means personality, how people express themselves (including shows of emotion), the way they think, how they move, how problems are solved, how their cities are planned and laid out, how transportation systems function and are organized, as well as how economic and government systems are put together and function.”（Edward T. Hall, 40）2.2 Definition of Cross-cultural CommunicationAs is known to all, the cross-cultural communication has become increasingly important for humans. The need for cross-cultural communication is as old as humankind. Weve discussed the definition of culture. Now, it is necessary to know something about the concepts of cross-cultural communication, which is the fist step to have a deeper understanding of social pragmatic failures. The cross-cultural communication (also frequently referred to as inter-cultural communication, which is also used in a different sense, though) is a field of study that looks at how people from different cultural backgrounds communicate, in similar or different ways among themselves, and how they endeavor to communicate across cultures.2.3 Cross-cultural Social Pragmatic FailuresThe term “pragmatic failure” was first used by British linguist Jenny Thomas in her paper “cross-cultural pragmatic failure” (1983), published in applied linguistics. It is to define the inability to understand what is meant by what said. Thomas divided pragmatic failure into two types, pragmatic-linguistic failure and social-pragmatic failure. Pragmatic-linguistic failure refers to the inability in interpreting the linguistic meaning by mistaken beliefs about pragmatic force of utterance. And social pragmatic failure refers to the expressive inappropriateness resulted from the misunderstanding or the ignorance of social or cultural differences. It falls into two main aspects: failure in culture and failure in social norms.Pragmatic-linguistic failure can be regarded as the part of the grammar and easy to overcome. Social pragmatic failure, however, involves the speakers knowledge of the language and system of belief which makes it more difficult to deal with. Pragmatic- linguistic failures may only make others think that you are “speaking badly”, but social pragmatic failure may probably leave others the impression of “behaving badly” and cause great embarrassment and misunderstandings during inter-cultural communication. Therefore, wed better try our best to avoid the social pragmatic failures and interact with people from different cultures as actively as possible. Only in this way can we achieve an effective communication result.3. Typical AnalysesBecause of the negative transfer of native culture to target culture, social pragmatic failures have become one of main factors lead to the communication barriers. Here I list six aspects of reflecting social pragmatic failures and the compares are presented between china and western countries.3.1 Form of AddressEvery country has its own way to address people. In the process of cross-cultural communication, we have to be cautious enough to choose the right form of address according to other peoples culture. Case (1) (A Chinese student greets his foreign teacher)Student: “Hello, Teacher Hedges.”Analyses: In china, its quite natural for students to call their teachers by combing the title of the profession and the first name. But in western countries, especially in American, “teacher” is just a profession but not a form of address. The right way to greet teachers is to add Mr/Mrs/Miss in front of ones family name, or call their name straightforwardly.Case (2) (A child in china met an American in a park and tried to speak to him courteously)A: Uncle, how do you do?B: Please call me John; Im not your uncle.Analyses: In China, children often call the elder people uncle or aunt for the sake of showing their great respect to them. But in western countries, the appellation of “uncle” can only be used by relatives. If they heard unfamiliar people call them “uncle” or “aunt”, they may feel embarrassed or uncomfortable.3.2 Value OrientationOne of the main factors causing social pragmatic failures is considered as the different belief orientations. And the differences reflected in peoples usage of language during the cross-cultural communication. Thats the reason why different people have different responses towards compliment and gratitude.3.2.1 Compliment ResponseCase (3) (A Chinese visiting scholar to American is praised by her American friend)American friend: Thats a lovely dress you have on.Chinese scholar: No, no, its just a very ordinary dress.Analyses: In traditional Chinese culture, being modest and prudent has been highly appreciated. People tend to depreciate themselves and put a higher value on other people. But in western countries, its quite natural for people to praise others, and its just a way of greeting. The different attitudes towards compliment response may certainly cause social pragmatic failures or communication barriers.3.2.2 Gratitude Response Case (4) (After a Chinese host accompanied a foreign businessman)Foreign businessman: Thank you for accompanying me.Chinese host: Dont mention it. Its my duty to do so.Analyses: Here, what the second speaker says makes the foreigner feel embarrassed, because he misunderstands the meaning of “duty”-what one must do either because of ones job or because one thinks it right. Instead, the Chinese host should say, “Its a pleasure!”3.3 PolitenessBeing polite is one of the main signals of human civilization. Different cultures have different ways of showing politeness to others. In china, people pay much attention to behaviors and tend to express courtesy in an indirect way. But for westerners, they are likely to use language to express their politeness orally in a very direct way. They are often saying “Hello”, “Nice to meet you”, “You are so pretty” or “You are so cute” to strangers even without thinking about it. Chinese people would feel confused about their words and think that they are so flippant. In the contrary, westerners would consider Chinese people as conservative and stubborn. Imagine that, if an American young boy saw a beautiful girl in the street, and he said loudly to the girl, “you are so pretty today!” The girl must be quite uncomfortable and feel bashful. This is one of the most typical instances about social pragmatic failures.3.4 PrivacyCase (5) many foreigners who came to china for the first time often feel uncomfortable about some questions asked by Chinese people, such as “Where are you going?”, “Are you married?”, “Have you had your dinner?”.Analyses: People must live and interact together to survive. In dong so, they must develop a way of relating that strikes a balance between showing concern for themselves and concern for others. Hofstede has put forth the individualism-collectivism dimension. Unlike those western countries which tend to hold the individual orientation, Chinese people prefer a collectivist orientation. Thus, privacy in china has not been placed in a position as high as in western cultures. Westerners have a much stronger sense of privacy than Chinese people do. Thats why some foreigners feel quite uncomfortable and embarrassed about those “intruded” questions. Actually, Chinese people who ask those questions didnt mean to offend them. Its only a way of showing care and affection to the foreign friends. Therefore, wed better choose some public topics when we communicate and interact with people from different cultures, such as “weather”, “sports”, or “news”. It would certainly do a great help to our success of intercultural communication.4. The Causes of Social Pragmatic Failures There are many reasons of the social pragmatic failures. This problem can be analyzed from different view angles. Because of its diversity and complexity, here, only three of the most brief and easily understood causes are listed below.4.1 Attitude towards the Relationships of Humans to NatureChina is a country which holds a view that man should be harmonious with nature and seek for peacefulness. We believe that nature would treat us well if we treat nature well, so the relationship between humans and nature is respect and fear. Since our culture teaches integration with nature, harmony and balance, we are likely to seek harmony and balance in social relationship as well. Whats more, the substance of Confucianism in china is peace. Confucianism advocates that people should be modest and keep a balanced relationship with the outside world.On the contrary, westerners, especially Americans see a clear separation between man and nature and man is clearly held to be in charge. Thus, they usually have an insatiable drive to subdue, dominate, and control their natural environment. Because of this, they think they are separate from others and can use scientific methods to control people and events. Thats the reason why westerners are so progressive and pay much attention to self-development and place privacy on a very high level. Therefore, the social pragmatic failures can be aroused easily in cross-cultural communication.4.2 Sense of TimeThe majority of Chinese people hold the belief of both future and past orientation. Our cultural memories are rich and deep, people usually look back to a period when they want to make changes for the sake of absorbing the past experience. In china, old people had been greatly respected by youngsters. In traditional Chinese family, important decisions have to be agreed by the oldest people in the family. But in western countries, old people dont enjoy a status as high as Chinese old people do. Most westerners are dominated by a belief in progress. They are future oriented, and they have an optimistic faith in the future. They tend to equate “change” with “improvement” and consider a rapid rate of change as normal. So it is not uncommon to find out that westerners usually have a negative feeling towards old people. They are trying to avoid referring to the word “old” in their daily conversation. Thats why there are a large number of euphemisms in the English vocabulary. If we dont much attention to this particular phenomenon, the social pragmatic failures can certainly not be avoided and solved.4.3 Different Social RelationshipsChinese peoples behavior reflects the group pattern of social relationships. In the group pattern of social relationships members of groups may be relatively equal. Each persons social identity comes from their group memberships. People feel dependent on the group, safe within it, proud and competitive with other groups. The groups need time to find out what each member is thinking and feeling. Once the group has made the decision, the whole group rather than one person is responsible for it. But in western countries, people pay great attention to the importance of the individual and the equality of all people. Stress on the individual begins at a very age when the American child is encouraged to be autonomous. It is an accepted rule that children should make decisions themselves, develop their own opinions, solve their own problems, and have their own possessions. Friendly, informal, outgoing, and extroverted are their characteristics. They are so independent from other people that they pay great emphasis on privacy. They hope they can have their own personal space and not to be invaded by others. Hence, the different social relationships can also be regarded one of the most important reasons of causing social pragmatic failures during the cross-cultural communication.5. The Ways to Deal With Social Pragmatic FailuresAs is known to all, the cross-cultural communication has become an inevitable trend in todays society. In order to solve the problems of social pragmatic failures which are the main causes of communication barriers and have an effective cross-cultural communication, we should adopt many different kinds of methods and try to solve this problem effectively.5.1 Raising AwarenessFirst of all, raise our awareness about this issue. Many people dont know the fact that different people from different backgrounds may have quite different values. Some people just assume that other people must think and behave in the same way as they do. Many barriers occur frequently during the process of cross-cultural communication because of this improvident view. Therefore, we should bear in mind the reality of cultural difference if we want to understand other people better who come from different cultural backgrounds. This is the very first step for us to avoid unnecessary misunderstandings during our interaction with people from different cultures. 5.2 Changing the Viewing AngleSecondly, another strategy you can use is to practice seeing your culture the way others who are not a part of it see it. Foreign observers are usually far from objective, but they often notice things that you have never noticed. They were able to see things that the natives took for granted. When we try to look upon things from their point of view, we probably come across a lot of new ideas and seize some effective ways to solve the problem of social pragmatic failures. Thats the reason why some of the most insightful writers about the American character and American culture have been Europeans.5.3 Making PracticeFinally, doing practice is the best way to know other countrys culture and help us avoid social pragmatic failures during the communication. For instance, wed better read more English novels, listen to English songs, or watch English movies as often as we can. The final goal of these practices are to help us form a way of English thinking and to have a deeper understanding of foreign cultures, which is an essential factor to influence the success of inter-cultural communication. Besides, grasping or even creating every possible chance to communicate with foreigners. Only after much practice can the problem of social pragmatic failures be raised and solved successfully. 6. ConclusionThe final goal of the study about the social pragmatic failures is to achieve a Cross-cultural communication competence. Therefore, we have to learn to approach our own culture more analytically and to be cautious when we are interpreting other cultures. But today, what children had been imparted by teachers is mainly linguistic usage of a foreign language and the knowledge of culture had been overlooked. In order to conquer a foreign language, we should put great emphasis on both language learning and cultural learning. Only in this way can we achieve an effective result in cross-cultural communication and meet the demands of economic globalization.Bibliography 1 Davis, L. 2001. Cross-cultural Communication in Action M. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.2 Kramsch, C. 2