To develop Ss into efficient and independent readers,湖北省仙桃市教育科學研究院 虞敢嬌 2013.11.22,新改版后的初中英語教材與舊版之間的變化很大，其中新增加的對話與閱讀語篇版塊的教學成為老師們在教學實際中難以把握的難點所在，他們困惑于：課時怎樣分配？對話應該怎樣教？長語篇的生詞與語法應該怎樣處理才合適？怎樣才能培養(yǎng)學生的閱讀能力？哪些教學手段有助于提升學生的閱讀能級層次？. ,關于閱讀教學，我們的困惑：,1. 我們現(xiàn)在的做法錯了嗎？ 2. 閱讀的目的何在？ 3. 如何深化閱讀教學？ 4. 什么是閱讀整體教學？ 5. 如何進行語篇分析？,一、目前英語閱讀教學中的兩個主要問題： 1 過分注重詞匯和句子層面的教學，忽視語篇語義教學。 認為閱讀教學的主要目的是學習語言知識，因此講解詞匯，分析結構，翻譯句子是主要的教學方法。將課文分解得支離破碎，嚴重忽視了語義的整體理解。學習結果：只見樹木，不見森林。 教師教得好辛苦，學生學得好痛苦 穿新鞋，走老路,對課文處理過于粗放，嚴重忽視閱讀效率 英語課標指出：此次英語課程改革的重點是改變英語課程過分重視語法和詞匯的講解與傳授，忽視對學生實際語言運用能力的培養(yǎng)的傾向。 強調課文內容理解，重視快速閱讀，只抓課文主旨大意，段落大意的理解，忽視對語言知識的輸入與學習。過早地進行理解后的運用，比如討論，辯論，角色扮演等。,這種教學模式： 念一念生詞 讀一讀課文 做一做練習 對一對答案 對課文的處理基本上都是快速閱讀，目的是培養(yǎng)學生快速閱讀的能力，檢測性問題也都是表層理解，對語篇材料沒有進行深度挖掘，造成課文資源浪費。,閱讀教學的目的： 1 Reading for information 2 Reading for developing reading skills 3 Reading for learning the language 4 Reading for pleasure 5 Reading for writing 如何深化閱讀教學？,二、什么是閱讀整體教學？ 堅持“以人為本”，用“科學教學觀”來深化閱讀教學，其根本途徑是實施“閱讀整體教學”。 什么是閱讀整體教學？ 閱讀整體教學是指從不同角度，不同層面，針對不同的教學目的，對課文進行全面、系統(tǒng)而富有深度的分析性教學，不僅僅是理解性教學。,閱讀整體教學包括： 語篇意義的整體性 語篇結構的整體性 語言形式和語言意義的結合 閱讀教學過程的整體性 語言輸入和語言輸出的整合性 課文整體教學不僅讓學生掌握課文的內容梗概， 而且要引導學生利用語言形式去構建全文的語義圖 像，還要利用全文的語義圖像反過來去理解詞匯， 結構等語言知識在具體語境中的實際運用，把語言 形式教學與語言意義的教學有機地結合起來。,閱讀整體教學的理論基礎： 語篇教學觀 圖示理論,語篇教學觀 (text approach) 語篇是指一系列連續(xù)的話段或句子所構成的語言整體，它可以是對話，也可以是獨白，包括書面語，也包括口語。語篇是一種交際行為。語篇必須具有話題、語境和語義三個要素構成，具有完整性、銜接性和連貫性。其中銜接性和連貫性是語篇最為明顯的特征。 語篇教學觀突出語義，重視語言的交際功能，打破了以往單詞和句子層面的閱讀教學常規(guī)，讓學生從整體語義的高度把握語篇信息，通過語篇分析(discourse analysis)，了解文章的組織結構，理解作者的寫作意圖，從更深更廣的范圍來全面獲取語篇信息。,語篇教學既注重語言形式，又注重語言功能，同時還注重語篇所涉及的語言文化知識。語篇教學旨在提高學生的語篇分析能力，引導學生既快又準確地弄清語篇的整體結構與主旨大意，以及為說明該主旨大意的重要事實，進而根據(jù)上下文的邏輯關系做出合理的推論與判斷，以最大限度地獲取語篇中的完整意義。,閱讀理解能力實際上是指一個人的概念能力、背景知識和加工策略之間相互作用的結果。概念能力是閱讀理解中最重要的因素。概念能力是指讀者在閱讀過程中如何把零散的信息升華為概念的能力。一些學生能輕而易舉地做對一些客觀理解題（查對事實，分清是非題），而對主觀理解題（概括課文中心，作者意圖，判斷題，結論）成功率極低，實行語篇教學是提高邏輯推理、演繹、歸納等能力的根本途徑。,圖示理論 (schema theory) 圖示(schema)是指人們大腦中所儲存的相互關聯(lián)的各種知識，觀點與概念，包括內容圖示和形式圖示。 人的知識是以圖示(schema)的形式儲存于長時記憶中。這些圖示大小不同，相互連接，縱橫交錯，在長時記憶中形成一個巨大的立體網絡系統(tǒng)。這就是我們常說的“聯(lián)想”機制。圖示網絡由所注意的外部信息激活后而啟動運作，有“以點擊網”的效應，而且激活這一網絡不是一次完成的，要多次反復。,圖示理論認為，閱讀不是一個被動的“解碼”(decoding)過程，而是一個復雜的心理過程和積極主動地思維過程；是讀者和作者之間的一種非面對面的信息交流的互動過程；是讀者基于自己的生活經驗和文本信息進行意義建構的過程。 閱讀的過程是psycholinguistic guessing game, 心理語言學的猜測游戲 圖示理論指導下的閱讀心理機制是：預測、證實、擴展、修正、再預測、再證實的知覺循環(huán)過程。 Researches show that reading is incidentally visual. More information is contributed by the reader than by the print on the page.,三、三種不同的閱讀教學模式： 1 文本驅動型 data-driven approach bottom-up approach (60年代初） 特點：重視語言知識對閱讀理解的重要作用，閱讀理解從詞、短語、單句、段落一直到篇章順序逐步深入。認為閱讀行為是被動的“解碼”過程。 教學行為：分析和講解詞匯知識和句子結構，采用翻譯手段理解課文。 問題：忽視讀者在閱讀過程中的主觀能動性，忽視讀者對閱讀意義的自我構建。閱讀速度慢，理解不夠全面，容易造成“只見樹木，不見森林”的現(xiàn)象。,2 圖式驅動型 Schema-driven approach Top-down approach ( 60年代末） 特點：強調讀者先前的背景知識對閱讀理解的重要作用，閱讀活動不是被動的，而是主動的，是讀者思維的過程， 是意義重新建構的過程。 教學行為：重視主觀預測和推理，重視快速閱讀，重視文化教學。 問題：過分強調讀者的心理圖式（schema)對閱讀理解的重要意義，弱化讀者的語言基礎，忽視讀者的“解碼”過程。語言畢竟是信息的最基本的載體。然而，文化，經驗，認知水平等方面的差異也會導致圖示的負面影響。,3 相互作用型 Interactive approach (70年代中期） 特點：認為閱讀過程既是語言文字的處理過程，也是讀者對已有背景知識的運用和處理過程。在閱讀過程中，讀者會同時利用語言知識分析和背景知識進行預測從而獲得正確的理解，bottom-up 和top-down兩種模式往往是并行的或交叉使用的。 優(yōu)點：更能體現(xiàn)閱讀過程的本質，比較適合外語或二語閱讀教學。 教學行為：整體閱讀教學，從語篇上把握語義，培養(yǎng)閱讀策略，同時加強語言知識學習。,四、閱讀整體教學模式 根據(jù)語篇教學觀，圖示理論、建構主義教學觀以及相互作用型閱讀模式來構建外語學習背景下的閱讀教學模式。,閱讀整體教學模式： 讀前熱身 (Warming up) 快速閱讀 (Fast reading) 仔細閱讀 (Careful reading) 分析性閱讀 (Analytic reading) 內容復述 (Retelling) 語言學習 (Language study) 語言運用 (Language application),這一整體閱讀教學模式體現(xiàn)了： 閱讀過程的完整性 Pre-reading, while-reading, post-reading 語義理解的完整性 通過三次閱讀來獲取語篇的完整意義。三次閱讀教學首先基于“信息的分層輸入原則”，其次是基于閱讀的三個層次的理解。,閱讀理解的三個層次： 1）字面理解(literal comprehension) Understanding the lines 2）推斷性理解 (inferential comprehension) Understanding between the lines 3) 評價性理解 (Critical comprehension) Understanding beyond the lines,3 語言知識和語篇知識的整合性 結構語法和語篇語法的結合 Structural grammar + discourse grammar 4 Top-down 和 bottom-up 相結合 先top-down, 然后再bottom-up 實際上就是interactive approach 5 語言學習和語言運用相結合 語言分層輸入和分層輸出相結合,五、 語篇分析(discourse analysis) 是整體閱讀教學的核心，也是閱讀與寫作教學整合的根本基礎，因此閱讀整體教學應首先從語篇分析入手。,什么是語篇 (text)？ 語篇是是由一系列的句子或語段組織起來的能表達一個完整語義的篇章，它是超越句子層面的語義單位。語篇是一種交際活動(communicative occurrence), 應具有七項標準：銜接性、連貫性、意圖性、完整性、語境性、信息性和互動性。因此，一篇文章的整體性不僅表現(xiàn)在結構層次（詞，句，段）等方面的聯(lián)系，還表現(xiàn)在意義層次的聯(lián)系，也就是作者所要表達的意圖和寫作的目的。,什么是語篇分析 （discourse analysis / text analysis)？ 從整體理解語篇內容入手，分析句子與句子之間，段落與段落之間的銜接方式和邏輯思維的連貫方式，使學生具有統(tǒng)覽全篇的能力，掌握文本的主題，同時掌握句子在表達篇章整體意義上所起的作用。,1 語篇的宏觀分析 分析語篇的體裁結構及其表現(xiàn)特征。 英語的文體特征是受英語的思維模式而形成的。因此，要了解英語的文體特征，我們必須要了解西方人與東方人在思維模式上的不同。,中西方不同的思維模式 西方的思維模式基本上是“直線型”(linear)，先概 括，后細節(jié)；先抽象，后具體；先綜合，后分析。 首先直接切入主題，然后逐漸分點展開分析闡述， 由主題句直接向縱深拓展。主要分為三種形式： 一般-特殊型(general particular pattern) 問題解決型（problem-solution pattern) 比較匹配型（Matching pattern) 中國的思維模式主要是“螺旋型”(spiral),往往 “迂回式”接近主題，而不是直接切入主題，展 開討論。,思維模式1：一般-特殊型（ general particular pattern） 這種思維模式在英語中是最常見，最具代表性的，它充分體現(xiàn)了西方人的線性思維模式。它有兩種表現(xiàn)形式： 1）概括-舉例式(generalization example) 段首句往往是一個概括句，可以表達某種觀點，看法，結論和定義，下文的例證部分是對段首句的內容進行展開、充實，來強化或論證段首句的內容。,Large cars cause their owners several problems. First, they cost a lot of money. They are also more expensive to run, using twice as much as fuel as small cars and producing higher repair bills. Moreover, they are more difficult to park, needing additional space.,2) 整體細節(jié)式（Previewdetail) 段首句往往是概括主體思想，然后再引出具體細節(jié)。 The working conditions were poor. The tables where the workers sat were very high and uncomfortable. Except for a half hour at lunchtime, there were no breaks in the day to relieve the boring work. There was no music. The walls of the workrooms were a dull gray color. I was amazed that the workers hadnt gone on strike.,思維模式2：問題解決型 (problem-solution pattern) 這種思維模式的特點是先說明情況，然后引出問題，分析問題，最后解決解決問題。 這種模式多見于敘事性文體和說明文。,These days many soccer experts are asking how referees can do a better job. With so much money involved in the winning and losing of games, some soccer experts are speaking openly of getting rid of some bad referees because they make bad decisions during the game because they sometimes cannot see a foul on the field of play, One solution is to use video replays for controversial decisions. Another solution would be to hire professional referees. 提出問題，分析問題，解決問題,思維模式3：比較匹配型 （ Matching pattern） 英語中常用這種模式比較兩種事物的相同點或不同點。 Just like house cats, wild cats like to bask in the sunshine. Have you ever visited the zoo and seen a lion outside sunning itself on a rock? The warm sunshine lulls cats to sleep. In the wild, cats often sleep when the sun is high in the sky. House cats get drowsy in the sun. They like to sleep on a rug in front of a big window.,2 語篇的微觀分析 銜接 (cohesion) 連貫 (coherence),語篇必須具有銜接和連貫的特征。語篇內句與句之間在概念上有聯(lián)系，在排列上符合邏輯。銜接是語篇的有形網絡，它通過詞匯和語法手段讓語句文理通順。文章通過一定的銜接手段，將句與句，段與段有機地組合起來，構成一個完整的語義整體。銜接可以通過文章的語篇標記(discourse markers)來觀察。 連貫是指句與句之間在意義上具有合乎邏輯的有機聯(lián)系，語義表述思路清晰,意義關系首尾貫通，使交際對方容易得到要領。連貫既包括語篇結構的銜接，也包括語篇語義的連續(xù)發(fā)展。連貫是語篇的無形網絡。連貫在表面上是看不見的，要靠讀者的邏輯推理來理解。,語篇之所以成為語篇不在于它的語法性，而在于它的語義關聯(lián)性。如果一段文章，即使每個句子都是符合語法規(guī)則的，但每句話從意思上互不關聯(lián)，那么它就夠不成語篇。 Joy kept two mice in a cage. She is one of the top students in her school. She loves animals, so she keeps cats, dogs ,mice and even snakes. However, she is a nice and brave girl. 沒有中心話題，沒有邏輯聯(lián)系,Joy kept two white mice in a cage. One day she forgot to lock the cage door after feeding her mice. Each day she fed her mice and gave them fresh water. The mice soon found the open door and ran off. 邏輯問題：不符合從整體到細節(jié)的思維模式,Joy kept two white mice in a cage. Each day she fed her mice and gave them fresh water. One day she forgot to lock the cage door after feeding her mice. The mice soon found the open door and ran off. 符合從總體到細節(jié)的思維模式，從主題句到each day， 然后再到one day，最后到結果ran off ran off 的原因是forgot to lock the cage door,銜接是語義聯(lián)系在語言上的表現(xiàn)形式。語篇銜接形 式包括語法銜接、詞匯銜接和邏輯連接。 一、語法銜接 語法銜接包括照應，替代和省略三種形式： 1）照應（Reference ） 照應是指用人稱代詞或指示代詞等語法手段來表示一種語義關系，也就是用代詞代替前文提到的人或事，前后形成照應關系，便于閱讀。這是一種比較常見的銜接方式。照應分為人稱照應和指示照應。,人稱照應 (Personal reference) 例：Ill live in Shanghai, because I went to Shanghai last year and fell in love with it. 例：I cant have any pets now because my mother hates them. 例：Life for Cathy Taylors three children is very busy. Their school days are busy enough.,指示照應 (Demonstrative reference) The fight all started when she asked me if she could copy my homework. I asked her why she wanted to do that, and she said that she had forgotten to do hers. If you are famous, people will watch you all the time and follow you everywhere. This could make your life difficult.,2 替代 (Substitution) 替代是指說話者或作者為了避免重復而用替代形式來取代上文中的某一部分。這是一種重要語言表達手段，常用one, ones, the same等。替代分為：名詞性替代、動詞性替代和分句替代。,）名詞性替代 (nominal substitution) I dont like this red skirt. Please show me a yellow one. He did me lots of kindness. Ill do the same for him someday.,2) 動詞性替代 (verbal substitution) Have you written an email to your boss? Yes, I did it yesterday. 3) 分句性替代 (clausal substitution) A：Has Mary passed the math exam? B：Well, I think so. A：It looks like rain. B：I am afraid so.,3 省略 (ellipsis) 省略是指為了避免重復，突出主要信息，對語言結構中的某個成分省去不提。 從某種程度上講，省略結構在句法上是不完整的，但這并不意味著省略結構是不可理解的，因為受話者可以從上下文中找到被省略的成分。正是由于省略結構與被省略成分之間的這種預設關系使句子或語篇前后銜接。,1) 名詞性省略 A: Have some soup, please. B: Sorry, there isnt any. 2) 動詞性省略 One boy is a boy, two boys half a boy, three boys no boy 一個和尚挑水吃，兩個和尚抬水吃，三個和尚沒水吃。,二、詞匯銜接 (lexical cohesion) 詞匯銜接是指：語篇中的一些詞在上下文中重復出現(xiàn)或由其他詞匯替代的現(xiàn)象。通過詞匯的重復，同義，反義，上下義，互補等關系來使語篇語義連貫。詞匯復現(xiàn)分為四種： 1 原詞復現(xiàn)， 2 同義詞，近義詞復現(xiàn)， 3 上下義詞復現(xiàn)， 4 反義詞復現(xiàn)。,1 I dont like dogs. Actually I hate dogs. （原詞復現(xiàn)） 2 My brother Tim is really good at sports. He plays football, basketball and baseball as well. （上下義復現(xiàn)） 3 Tom is a smart boy. He always has a lot of clever ideas about how to make money for his class. (同義詞復現(xiàn)） 4 A: On my next day off, I dont want to go for a drive. That sounds really boring. B: Oh, really? I think that sounds fun. （反義詞復現(xiàn)）,三、邏輯連接 (conjunction) 邏輯連接是指表示兩個或更多句子之間的某種邏輯手段，并指出句子是在什么意義上互相連接起來的。邏輯連接可分以下10類: 請看以下邏輯銜接的功能及其語篇標記(discourse markers)。,1 列舉 (enumerative) 介紹事情的先后順序或事情發(fā)生的時間 順序。 first(ly), second(ly), third(ly), next , then, finally, for one thing, for another thing, eventually, in the end, to conclude 2 增補 (additive) and, again, then again, also, moreover, furthermore, in addition, above all, what is more, equally, similarly, likewise, in the same way,3 總結 (summative) so, so far, altogether, overall, then, thus, therefore, in short, to sum up, to conclude, to summarize 4 結果 (resultative) so, as a result, consequently, hence, therefore, thus, in consequence 5 解釋 (explicative) namely, in other words, that is to say, better, rather, by (this) we mean,6 舉例 (illustrative) for example, for instance 7 替代 (replacive) alternatively, or again, or rather, but then, on the other hand 8 對照 (antithetic) instead, then, on the contrary, by contrast, on the other hand,9 讓步 (concessive) anyway, anyhow, however, nevertheless, still, though, in spite of, all the same 10 原因 (causal) because, so, for, for this reason, thats why,例1： I want to be a reporter for a fashion magazine. So how am I going to do it? First, Im going to find a part-time job for a year or two and save some money. Then Im going to be a student at an art school in Paris. And Im going to study French a the same time. Next, Im going to hold art exhibitions because I want to be rich and famous. Im going to buy a big house with the money and Im going to travel all over the world. Finally, Im going to retire somewhere quiet and beautiful.,例2： Etiquette is not the same in every culture or in every situation. For example, standing very close to the person you are talking with is quite common in some Asian countries. However, if you do this in Europe, some people might feel uncomfortable. (舉例，讓步和轉折) Although rules of etiquette can often be different, some rules are the same almost everywhere in the world! For example, dropping litter is almost never allowed. If you see someone you know doing this, you can ask them, “Would you mind picking it up?”,銜接與連貫的關系 銜接是具有外在表現(xiàn)形式的，可以通過語法、詞匯、邏輯等手段來實現(xiàn)，表現(xiàn)的是語篇的表層結構。而連貫是使一個語篇能起到交際功能的條件，是無形的，需要通過邏輯推理來達到，表現(xiàn)的是深層結構。語篇連貫評價的標準是語段必須有一個主題。語篇中的其他部分都是這個主題的一部分，而且是為這個主題服務的。連貫的語篇應由單一性，即不能把幾層相對獨立的意思擁擠在一個語段里。同時，連貫應具有完整性，即每一段要把一個相對獨立的意思說完。,Animals perform many useful and entertaining jobs. Dogs are particularly valuable in guiding the blind, protecting property, finding lost people, and hunting animals. Horses are used in guiding herds, carrying men in lands where there are no roads, and helping farmers work their land. Pigeons have long been used to carry messages. Wild animals from jungles, forests and seas are very popular performers in circus and moving pictures. People realize that, although animals may not have the same intelligence as human beings, they are smart enough to learn certain things.,語義完整而連貫的語篇 主題句（概括陳述）: Animals perform many useful and entertaining jobs. 若干具體陳述 （dogs, horses, pigeons, wild animals ) 沒有使用語篇標記 概括總結（前后呼應）: People realize that, although animals may not have the same intelligence as human beings, they are smart enough to learn certain things.,語篇分析對閱讀教學的啟示 閱讀教學應立足語義，放眼語篇，實現(xiàn)對課文的整體和立體化理解。 1）單句中找關鍵詞(key word/ information word) 2）段落中找關鍵句(topic sentence) 3）語篇中找主題段落(topic paragraph),通過語篇教學培養(yǎng)學生的閱讀能力。 十大常用閱讀技能： Skimming for main idea 快速閱讀獲取主要信息 Scanning for details 快速閱讀獲取細節(jié)信息 Comparing and contrasting 進行對比與比較 Identifying cause and effect 判斷因果關系 Identifying fact and opinion分辨事實與觀點 Drawing conclusions 做概括與總結 Sequencing 把握時空順序 Making inferences 做判斷與推理 Making predictions 做內容預測 Making guesses 猜測生詞,3 閱讀練習設計要有深度，能啟發(fā)學生的思維，培養(yǎng)學生的推理，判斷和概括能力。 除了常規(guī)的練習形式，如單項選擇、判斷正誤、回答問題等，我們應當加強以下幾個方面的練習： 1 指代關系 2 因果關系 3 邏輯順序 4 時間順序 5 信息匹配 （時間與事件，行為與人物） 6 信息轉換（閱讀填寫表格）,7 判斷與推理 8 找出不合邏輯的句子 (discourse noise) 9 完形填句 10 句子信息改錯（代替判斷句子正誤） 11 jigsaw reading （由句子組段落，由段 落組文章, 小組活動）,例1: 找出不合邏輯的句子 Can you find the sentence that doesnt belong to the passage? Jim and Jed are twins. Their friends cannot tell them apart. Both boys have big green eyes and short red hair. Each day they dress in the same shirts and pants. But the boys are not the same at all. It is true that boys are different in many ways than girls. Jim likes to play sports and beat on his drum set. Jed likes to read books and draw flowers and birds. The boys may be twins, but they are each one of a kind. （語義噪音pragmatic noise),例2: 完形填句 My name is Tina Smith and Ive just graduated from college. Im going to take a year off to travel before looking for a job. (1)_. When I was in a middle school, I said to myself, “ The world is my home. (2) _. When I travel, I like to learn more about the places I visit. You cant do this by staying in expensive hotels or joining tour groups (3) _and learn about their languages and foods and ways of doing things. Id really love to go to exotic Africa, South America, India and China. (4)_, and Id probably have to work for a few years and save enough money for the trips. A. so I hope to stay with families in different countries B. I hope to travel to many places C. However, I know traveling around the world is expensive D. Id like to get to know it better,例3：判斷與推理 Who said this? Draw lines to connect the sentence with the correct name. 1 “I have big green eyes.” Jim 2 “ Where is my drum set?” 3 “ Dad, look at my drawing of the flower!” Jed 4 “ I cannot tell Jim and Ted apart. Their friend 5 “I play sports every day.”,例4：猜測生詞 Most of my friends drank reeb at the party, but I didnt, because I would drive home.,例5：分清事實和觀點,Read the article again and tell which sentence is a fact (F) and which is an opinion(O).,例6：信息轉換,Use the information in the passage to complete the following notes about Yuan Longping . Name: Age: Nationality: Occupation: Education: Achievements:,例7：把握時空順序,Number the activities according to the second diary entry. ( ) Decided to take a train ( ) Decided to go to Penang Hill ( ) It started raining ( ) waited over an hour ( ) Got to the top of the hill ( ) Got wet and cold ( ) wanted to walk up to the top ( )couldnt see anything below,例8：理解因果關系,1. They decided to take train to the top of the hill because_. 2. They waited over two hours for the train because_. 3. They were wet and cold because _. 4. They didnt see anything below because _. 5. The food tasted great because _.,閱讀&建房子,磚頭詞匯(vocabulary) 預制板詞塊(lexical chunks) 鋼筋結構語法結構(grammar) 水泥混泥土連接詞和連接結構 裝修修辭 家具和人語篇信息 Building material house home,Thank you！,