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Unit1 Lesson1 1 礦物（minerals） Minerals definition: Minerals by definition are natural inorganic substances possessing definite chemical compositions and atomic structures. 礦物的定義：具有穩(wěn)定的化學成分、晶體結(jié)構的天然無機化合物。 Mineral types: native and metallic form, oxides, sulphides, carbonates, silicates and chlorides. 礦物的種類：主要按化學成分劃分：單質(zhì)礦物、氧化物、硫化物、碳酸鹽、硅酸鹽、鹵化物等。 Isomorphism: substitution of atoms within the crystal structure by similar atoms takes place without affecting the atomic structure. 類質(zhì)同象：礦物晶體中的原子被類似原子取代而不改變礦物晶體結(jié)構的現(xiàn)象。例如：鐵橄欖石—鎂橄欖石。 Polymorphism: different minerals have the same chemical composition, but markedly different physical properties due to a difference in atomic structure. 同質(zhì)多象：礦物的化學成分相同，但晶體結(jié)構和物理化學性質(zhì)不同的現(xiàn)象。例如：金剛石、石墨。 Rocks: Rocks consist of a variety of minerals and form large parts of the earth’s crust. Granite, for instance, which is the most abundant igneous rock, is composed of three main mineral constituents, feldspar, quartz, and mica. 巖石：由一種或多種礦物組成的天然集合體，例如：花崗巖主要由石英、長石、云母以不同比例組成。 2 礦石ores Ore: An ore can be described briefly as an accumulation of mineral in sufficient quantity as to be capable of economic extraction. 礦石:具有經(jīng)濟利用價值的礦物集合體. Classification: （1） Ores are frequently classed according to the nature of the valuable mineral, such as native ores, sulphide ores and oxidised ores. （2） Ores are also classified by the nature of their gangues, such as calcareous or basic (lime rich), or siliceous, or acidic (silica rich) 礦石的分類:（1）根據(jù)有用礦物的性質(zhì)分為:自然元素礦石(單質(zhì)礦石)、硫化礦和氧化礦等。（2）根據(jù)脈石礦物的性質(zhì)分為：鈣質(zhì)礦石、硅質(zhì)礦石、酸性礦石等。 3 金屬礦石與非金屬礦石metallic ores and non-metallic ores Ores of economic value can be classed as metallic (when it is used to prepare the metal) or non-metallic (when it is used to make material), according to the use of the mineral. 根據(jù)礦物的用途劃分：如果以提取礦物中的金屬為目的，則成為金屬礦石；如果礦物直接利用，則稱之為非金屬礦石。 Review of the last lesson 1 礦物（minerals） Minerals by definition are natural inorganic substances possessing definite chemical compositions and atomic structures. Isomorphism: Many minerals exhibit isomorphism, where substitution of atoms within the crystal structure by similar atoms takes place without affecting the atomic structure. Polymorphism: Minerals can also exhibit polymorphism, different minerals having the same chemical composition, but markedly different physical properties due to a difference in atomic structure. 2 礦石ores Ore: An ore can be described briefly as an accumulation of mineral in sufficient quantity as to be capable of economic extraction. 3 金屬礦石與非金屬礦石metallic ores and non-metallic ores Ores of economic value can be classed as metallic (when it is used to prepare the metal) or non-metallic (when it is used to make material), according to the use of the mineral. Lesson2 Types of coal煤的種類 Lignite, Sub-bituminous coal, Bituminous coal and Anthracite. 主要包括:褐煤、亞煙煤、煙煤、無煙煤 Coking and use of coke煉焦及焦炭的應用 Coke is a solid carbonaceous residue derived from low-ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal from which the volatile constituents are driven off by baking in an oven without oxygen at temperatures as high as 1,000 C (1,832 F) so that the fixed carbon and residual ash are fused together. 焦炭是一種從低灰、低硫的煙煤中獲得的固態(tài)碳質(zhì)殘余物，煙煤在隔絕氧氣的條件下和1000度的高溫下焙燒，驅(qū)除其中的揮發(fā)份，使固定碳和殘留灰分熔融在一起。 Gasification Coal gasification breaks down the coal into its components, usually by subjecting it to high temperature and pressure, using steam and measured amounts of oxygen. 煤氣化是將煤分解為不同的組分，通常是使用蒸汽和一定量的氧氣氣氛，在高溫、高壓條件下進行。 Liquefaction液化 包括間接液化和直接液化兩種方法 Indirect synthesis: Coal would be gasified to make syngas and the syngas can be condensed using Fischer-Tropsch catalysts(催化劑) to make light hydrocarbons which are further processed into gasoline and diesel. 間接液化：首先將煤氣化為合成氣，然后在催化劑作用下將合成氣濃縮制備輕質(zhì)烴油，輕質(zhì)烴油在進一步轉(zhuǎn)化為汽油和柴油。 Direct liquefaction processes: liquefaction by hydrogenation, Solvent Refined Coal, Karrick process 直接液化：包括加氫液化、溶劑精煉、 Karrick法等。 The Fischer-Tropsch process (or Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis) is a catalyzed chemical reaction in which synthesis gas (syngas), a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, is converted into liquid hydrocarbons of various forms. The most common catalysts are based on iron and cobalt, although nickel and ruthenium have also been used. The principal purpose of this process is to produce a synthetic petroleum substitute, typically from coal, natural gas or biomass, for use as synthetic lubrication oil or as synthetic fuel. Sasol (South African Coal and Oil) is a South African company involved in mining, energy, chemicals and synfuels. In particular, they produce petrol and diesel profitably from coal and natural gas using Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. The Bergius Process is a method of production of liquid hydrocarbons for use as synthetic fuel by hydrogenation of lignite (brown coal) at high temperature and pressure. It was first developed by Friedrich Bergius in 1913. Lignite or sub-bituminous coal is finely ground and mixed with heavy oil recycled from the process. Catalyst is typically added to the mixture. A number of catalysts have been developed over the years, including tungsten or molybdenum sulfides, tin or nickel oleate, and others. Naphtha normally refers to a number of different flammable liquid mixtures of hydrocarbons, i.e. a distillation product from petroleum or coal tar boiling in a certain range and containing certain hydrocarbons, a broad term encompassing any volatile, flammable liquid hydrocarbon mixture. The Karrick process is a low-temperature carbonization (LTC) of coal, shale, lignite or any carbonaceous materials. These are heated at 680F (360C) to 1380 F (360 C to 749 C) in the absence of air to distill out oil and gas. The process was the work of oil shale technologist at the U.S. Bureau of Mines in the 1920s. China has announced high volume commercial coal liquefaction production in late 2007[1], after a successful trial, starting a process that could rapidly free China from dependency upon external OPEC oil imports. The process is reported to have 60-meter-high cylindrical structures and to be a direct coal liquefaction process. While lacking formal confirmation, the process described seems identical to the Karrick process. Review of the last lesson Types of coal煤的種類 Lignite, Sub-bituminous coal, Bituminous coal and Anthracite. Coking and use of coke煉焦及焦炭的應用 Coke is a solid carbonaceous residue derived from low-ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal from which the volatile constituents are driven off by baking in an oven without oxygen at temperatures as high as 1,000 C so that the fixed carbon and residual ash are fused together. Gasification 汽化 Coal gasification breaks down the coal into its components, usually by subjecting it to high temperature and pressure, using steam and measured amounts of oxygen. Liquefaction液化 Indirect synthesis: Coal would be gasified to make syngas and the syngas can be condensed using Fischer-Tropsch catalysts to make light hydrocarbons which are further processed into gasoline and diesel. Direct liquefaction processes: liquefaction by hydrogenation, Solvent Refined Coal, Karrick process The Fischer-Tropsch process is a catalyzed chemical reaction in which synthesis gas, is converted into liquid hydrocarbons of various forms. The Karrick process is a low-temperature carbonization (LTC) of coal, shale, lignite or any carbonaceous materials. These are heated at 360 C to 749 C in the absence of air to distill out oil and gas. Lesson3 Introduction Coal assay techniques are specific analytical methods designed to measure the particular physical and chemical properties of coals 煤質(zhì)分析技術是指用于分析煤的物理和化學性質(zhì)的特定分析方法。 Chemical properties of coal 煤的化學性能 Each type of coal has a certain set of physical parameters which are mostly controlled by moisture, volatile content (in terms of aliphatic or aromatic hydrocarbons)， ash content and carbon content. 每一種煤都有一系列物理性能參數(shù)，主要包括水分、揮發(fā)份（包括脂肪烴和芳香烴）、灰分和含碳量。 Chemical Analysis 化學分析 Coal is also assayed for oxygen content, hydrogen content and sulphur. Sulphur is also analysed to determine whether it is a sulfide mineral or in a sulfate form。 煤的化學分析主要包括氧、氫、硫含量的分析。對硫來說，還要確定是硫化物還是硫酸鹽。 Physical and Mechanical Properties物理和機械性能 Relative density, Particle size distribution, Float-sink Test, Abrasion Testing 相對密度、顆粒粒度分布、浮沉試驗、磨耗試驗/耐磨試驗 Special Combustion Tests特殊燃燒試驗 Specific Energy, Ash Fusion Test， Swelling Index test 比能、灰熔性試驗，膨脹性試驗 Review of the last lesson Chemical properties of coal Each type of coal has a certain set of physical parameters which are mostly controlled by moisture, volatile content (in terms of aliphatic or aromatic hydrocarbons)， ash content and carbon content. Chemical Analysis Coal is also assayed for oxygen content, hydrogen content and sulphur. Sulphur is also analysed to determine whether it is a sulfide mineral or in a sulfate form。 Physical and Mechanical Properties Relative density, Particle size distribution, Float-sink Test, Abrasion Testing Special Combustion Tests Specific Energy, Ash Fusion Test， Swelling Index test Lesson4 1 Concept of mineral processing It is a process of physically separating the grains of valuable minerals from the gangue minerals. 礦物加工是從脈石礦物中分離有用礦物的過程。 2 Function of mineral processing In the majority of cases the energy consumed in direct smelting or leaching of low grade ores would be so enormous as to make the cost prohibitive（昂貴的、禁止的. ）在大多是情況下，低品位礦石直接熔煉或浸出的能耗巨大、成本昂貴。 Mineral processing reduces the bulk and weight of material which must be transported to the smelter，the lack of undesirable waste materials increases the smelter recovery. 礦物加工能夠使送往冶煉廠的原料體積和重量大大減少，而且，因原料中的雜質(zhì)含量低，有利于提高冶煉回收率。 2 Main operations There are two fundamental operations in mineral processing，namely the liberation of the valuable minerals from their waste gangue minerals, and separation of these values from the gangue. 礦物加工有兩類基本的作業(yè)，稱為有用礦物從脈石礦物中的解離和有用礦物與脈石礦物的分離（富集）。 Liberation: Liberation of the valuable minerals from the gangue is accomplished by comminution to such a particle size that the product is a mixture of relatively clean particles of mineral and gangue. 解離：有用礦物與脈石礦物的解離是由粉碎來完成的，粉碎粒度要保證產(chǎn)品成為較為純凈的有用礦物和脈石礦物顆粒的混合物。 Concentration: Separation is usually achieved by utilizing some specific difference in physical or chemical properties between the valuable mineral and gangue minerals in the ore. 富集：分離通常利用礦石中有用礦物和脈石礦物物理或化學性質(zhì)的差異來完成的。 Mineral processing methods 1. Separation dependent on optical and radioactive properties 根據(jù)礦物光學性質(zhì)或放射性的差異。 2. Separation dependent on specific gravity differences. 根據(jù)礦物比重的的差異 3. Separation utilizing the different surface properties of the minerals. 根據(jù)礦物表面性質(zhì)的的差異。 4. Separation dependent on magnetic properties 根據(jù)礦物磁性的差異。 5. Separation dependent on electrical conductivity properties. 根據(jù)礦物導電性的差異。 Other important steps Heat treatment: Roasting, Calcination，sizing of the ore and dewatering of the mineral pulps. 熱處理：焙燒，煅燒，礦石的分級和礦漿脫水。 Review of the last lesson 1 Concept of mineral processing It is a process of physically separating the grains of valuable minerals from the gangue minerals. 2 Function of mineral processing In the majority of cases the energy consumed in direct smelting or leaching of low grade ores would be so enormous as to make the cost prohibitive。 Mineral processing reduces the bulk and weight of material which must be transported to the smelter，the lack of undesirable waste materials increases the smelter recovery. 3 Main operations There are two fundamental operations in mineral processing，namely the liberation of the valuable minerals from their waste gangue minerals, and separation of these values from the gangue. 4 Mineral processing methods 1. Separation dependent on optical and radioactive properties 2. Separation dependent on specific gravity differences. 3. Separation utilizing the different surface properties of the minerals. 4. Separation dependent on magnetic properties 5. Separation dependent on electrical conductivity properties. Lesson5 Locked Particles 連生顆粒/連生體 The particles containing mineral also contains a portion of gangue. 既含有有用礦物,又含有脈石礦物的顆粒,稱為連生顆粒. Degree of liberation 解離度 The “degree of liberation “ refers to the percentage of the mineral occurring as free particles in the ore in relation to the total content. 解離度,是指礦石中以純礦物顆粒形式存在的礦物含量占該礦物在礦石中總含量的百分比. Optimum mesh of grind 最佳磨礦粒度 In practice, ores are ground to an optimum mesh of grind, determined by laboratory and pilot scale testwork, to produce an economic degree of liberation. 實踐中,通過實驗室實驗和半工業(yè)實驗,確定一個最佳磨礦粒度,使礦石達到一個經(jīng)濟的解離度. Two stage separation兩段分選/階段分選 This method discards most of the coarse gangue early in the process, thus considerably reducing grinding costs, as needless comminution of liberated gangue is avoided. 采用階段分選,可以在及早地丟棄粗顆粒脈石,這樣就避免了已解離脈石的不必要粉碎,能夠大大降低磨礦成本. Review of the last lesson Locked Particles The particles containing mineral also contains a portion of gangue. Degree of liberation The “degree of liberation “ refers to the percentage of the mineral occurring as free particles in the ore in relation to the total content. Optimum mesh of grind In practice, ores are ground to an optimum mesh of grind, determined by laboratory and pilot scale testwork, to produce an economic degree of liberation. Two stage separation This method discards most of the coarse gangue early in the process, thus considerably reducing grinding costs, as needless comminution of liberated gangue is avoided. Lesson6 1 The object of mineral processing 礦物加工的目的 The object of mineral processing, regardless of the method used, is always the same, i.e. to separate the minerals into two or more products with the values in the concentrates, the gangue in the tailings, and the “l(fā)ocked” particles in the middlings. 無論采用什么方法,礦物加工的目的都是一樣的,就是把礦物分離為兩種或兩種以上的產(chǎn)品,使有用礦物進入精礦、脈石礦物進入尾礦、連生顆粒進入中礦。 2 Limitation of Mineral Processing 礦物加工的局限性 Such separations are, of course, never perfect, so that much of the middlings produced are, in fact, misplaced(混雜的) particles. This is often particularly serious when treating ultra-fine particles, where the efficiency of separation is usually low. 礦物分選不是完美的，大部分中礦實際上是混雜顆粒。尤其是處理超細顆粒時，這種情況更為嚴重，分選效率也比較低。 3 Recovery回收率 The recovery, in the case of the concentration of a metallic ore, is the percentage of the total metal contained in the ore that is recovered in the concentrate. 對于金屬礦選礦來講，回收率是指進入精礦中金屬占礦石中金屬總量的百分比。 4 The ratio of concentration 選礦比 The ratio of concentration is the ratio of the weight of the feed to the weight of the concentrates. 選礦比是指給礦（原礦）重量與精礦重量之比。（表示生產(chǎn)1噸精礦所需要處理的原礦數(shù)量） 5 Grade 品位 The grade, or assay, usually refers to the content of the marketable end product in the material. 品位通常指物料中所含適銷最終產(chǎn)品的含量（如金屬含量，鐵礦石中TFe的含量）。 6 Enrichment ratio The enrichment ratio （富集比）is the ratio of the grade of the concentrate to the grade of the heads, and again is related to the efficiency of the process. Review of the last lesson The object of mineral processing The object of mineral processing, regardless of the method used, is always the same, i.e. to separate the minerals into two or more products with the values in the concentrates, the gangue in the tailings, and the “l(fā)ocked” particles in the middlings. Recovery The recovery, in the case of the concentration of a metallic ore, is the percentage of the total metal contained in the ore that is recovered in the concentrate. 4 The ratio of concentration The ratio of concentration is the ratio of the weight of the feed to the weight of the concentrates. Grade The grade, or assay, usually refers to the content of the marketable end product in the material. Enrichment ratio The enrichment ratio is the ratio of the grade of the concentrate to the grade of the heads, and again is related to the efficiency of the process. Unit2 Lesson1 Introduction 簡介 The liberation of valuable minerals from the gangue minerals is achieved by comminution, in which the particle size of the ore is progressively reduced until the clean particles of mineral can be separated by some concentrating methods. 有用礦物與脈石礦物的解離是通過粉碎完成的,通過粉碎使礦石顆粒逐步減小至能夠分離的純凈顆粒。 Crushing and Grinding 破碎與磨礦 Crushing is accomplished by compression of the ore against rigid surface, or by impact the surfaces in a rigidly constrained motion path. 破碎是靠剛性表面對礦石的壓力或是在嚴格限定的運動軌道內(nèi)，表面對礦石的沖擊而實現(xiàn)的。 Grinding is accomplished by abrasion and impact of the ore by the free motion of unconnected media such as rods, balls, or pebbles. 磨礦是礦石被鋼棒、鋼球或礫石等離散介質(zhì)的研磨和沖擊作用而完成的。 Strain of a crystal lattice 晶格的變形 In the crystalline lattice of minerals, the inter-atomic bonds are effective only over small distances, and can be broken if extended by a tensile stress. 在礦物晶格中，原子間的鍵力僅在一個很小的距離內(nèi)有效，能夠被拉應力拉伸而斷裂。 Stress concentration 應力集中 The distribution of stress depends upon the mechanical properties of the individual minerals, but more importantly, upon the presence of cracks or flaws in the matrix, which act as sites for stress concentration. 應力分布取決于各種不同礦物的力學性質(zhì)，但更重要地取決于礦石內(nèi)部中裂隙和裂紋的存在，因為這些地方能夠成為應力集中的部位。 Crack propagation 裂紋擴展 Materials fail by crack propagation when the energy released by relaxing the strain energy is greater than the energy of the new surface produced. 當釋放的形變能大于新生表面能時，材料就能夠通過裂紋擴展而破裂。 Modes of fracture 破裂模式 Breakage is achieved mainly by crushing, impact, and attrition. Therfore, there are three modes of fracture such as compressive, tensile, and shear fracture. （礦石）破裂主要通過壓碎、沖擊和研磨作用而實現(xiàn)。因此，主要有壓力破裂、拉力破裂和剪切破裂三種破裂模式。 Review of the last lesson Function of comminution The liberation of valuable minerals from the gangue minerals is achieved by comminution, in which the particle size of the ore is progressively reduced until the clean particles of mineral can be separated by some concentrating methods. Crushing and Grinding Crushing is accomplished by compression of the ore against rigid surface, or by impact the surfaces in a rigidly constrained motion path. Grinding is accomplished by abrasion and impact of the ore by the free motion of unconnected media such as rods, balls, or pebbles. Strain of a crystal lattice In the crystalline lattice of minerals, the inter-atomic bonds are effective only over small distances, and can be broken if extended by a tensile stress. Stress concentration The distribution of stress depends upon the mechanical properties of the individual minerals, but more importantly, upon the presence of cracks or flaws in the matrix, which act as sites for stress concentration. Crack propagation Materials fail by crack propagation when the energy released by relaxing the strain energy is greater than the energy of the new surface produced. Modes of fracture Breakage is achieved mainly by crushing, impact, and attrition. Therfore, there are three modes of fracture such as compressive, tensile, and shear fracture. Lesson3 Primary Crushers (粗碎破碎機) 破碎在選礦中的作用:破碎屬于礦石準備階段，是礦物加工過程的重要環(huán)節(jié)，主要目的在于為后續(xù)磨礦或分選作業(yè)準備適宜的礦石粒度。 破碎機種類:按照作業(yè)性質(zhì)分為粗碎、中碎和細碎三種；按照設備型式分為：顎式破碎機、旋回式破碎機、圓錐破碎機、輥式破碎機、沖擊式破碎機等。 粗碎破碎機:主要包括顎式破碎機和旋回破碎機兩大類. 顎式破碎機:破碎腔由固定顎板和運動顎板組成，通過動顎向?qū)τ诙€的擺動，使礦石受到擠壓、破碎。根據(jù)動顎的運動特性，又分為簡單擺動式和復雜擺動式兩種。通常作為粗碎設備使用，不能擠滿給礦。 旋回破碎機：破碎腔由固定錐（倒立截頭圓錐）和固定錐中間的運動錐（正立截頭圓錐）組成，通過動錐向?qū)τ诙ㄥF的擺動，使礦石受到擠壓、破碎。通常作為粗碎設備使用，其特點是允許擠滿給礦、處理能力大。 顎式破碎機 結(jié)構示意圖 顎式破碎機 原理示意圖 簡單擺動式（雙肘板） 復雜擺動式（單肘板） 旋回破碎機 結(jié)構及原理 Primary crushers Primary crushers are heavy-duty machines, used to reduce the run-of-mine ore down to a size suitable for transport and for feeding the secondary crushers. There are two main types of primary crusher in metalliferous