International Marketing Exam Review Notes International marketing; Is simply the application of marketing principles to more than one country.國際市場營銷:簡單來說，就是市場營銷原則的應(yīng)用不再局限于一個(gè)國家 Global Marketing; is a firms ability to market to almost all countries on the planet.全球營銷:是一個(gè)公司有能力在全球建立市場 Trends and Events;趨勢和項(xiàng)目 1. The growth of The World Trade Organization and regional trade areas such as the North American Free Trade Area and The European Union.世貿(mào),北美自由貿(mào)易區(qū),歐盟都在增長 2. The trend towards the acceptance of the free market system among developing countries in Latin America, Asia, and Eastern Europe. 拉丁美洲,亞洲,東歐的發(fā)展中國家對自由市場體系的接受的趨勢 3. the burgeoning impact of the Internet and Global media on the dissolution of national borders互聯(lián)網(wǎng)和全球媒體迅速發(fā)展的影響打破了國界 4. the mandate to properly manage the resources and the global environment for the generations to come.正確管理資源的命令和未來全球的環(huán)境 Pro-Globalists; Pro-globalists argue that the modern world is experiencing rapid convergence in tastes and preferences, and a standardization of worldwide production, distribution, and manufacturing.贊成全球化者:他們認(rèn)為全球正在經(jīng)歷審美和選擇的快速收斂,是全球范圍的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化的生產(chǎn),分配,制造的過程 Anti-Globalists; They rebel against the implications of its existence and vehemently challenge the view that it is inevitable and naturally occurring. 反對全球化者:他們對抗存在的影響，激烈的挑戰(zhàn)不可避免的和必然發(fā)生的觀點(diǎn) Self-Reference Criterion (SRC); is an unconscious reference to ones own cultural values, experiences, and knowledge as a basis for decisions.自我參考標(biāo)準(zhǔn):是無意識(shí)的參考文化價(jià)值,經(jīng)驗(yàn)和知識(shí)為基礎(chǔ)做出的決定 Ethnocentrism; the notion that ones own culture or company knows best how to do things.民族優(yōu)越感:是一種認(rèn)為自己的文化或公司是最好的的觀念 Stages of International Marketing Involvement國際市場營銷參與的階段 No Direct Foreign Marketing; In this stage the firm does not actively cultivate customers outside national boundaries; however, this companys products may reach foreign markets.不直接國外市場營銷:這個(gè)階段的公司并不積極的培養(yǎng)國外消費(fèi)者,然而公司的產(chǎn)品可以到達(dá)國外市場 Infrequent Foreign Marketing; Sales to foreign markets are made as goods are available, with little or no intention of maintaining continuous market representation.不頻發(fā)的國外市場營銷:實(shí)現(xiàn)國外市場的銷售因?yàn)樯唐肥强傻玫降?有著很少的甚至是沒有維持市場表現(xiàn)的意圖 Regular Foreign Marketing; At this level, the firm has permanent production capacity devoted to the production of goods to be marketed in foreign markets.經(jīng)常性的國外市場營銷:在這個(gè)階段公司有永久的生產(chǎn)能力投入到國外市場的商品生產(chǎn)中去 International Marketing; Companies at this stage are fully committed and involved in international marketing activities.國際市場營銷：這個(gè)階段的公司完全參與到國際市場營銷活動(dòng)中 Global Marketing; At this stage, companies treat the world, including their home market, as one market.全球市場營銷:在這個(gè)階段,公司把全球包括國內(nèi)市場看做一個(gè)市場 The Twentieth to the Twenty First Century20世紀(jì)到21世紀(jì) The first half of The Twentieth Century was marred by two major global conflicts, and The Great Depression.20世紀(jì)的前半葉兩次世界大戰(zhàn)和經(jīng)濟(jì)大蕭條損毀 World War 1 1914 to 1918第一次世界大戰(zhàn)1914-1918 The Great Depression 1929 to 1939大蕭條時(shí)期1929-1939 World War 2 1939 to 1945第二次世界大戰(zhàn)1939-1945 The Marshall plan; Was a plan aimed at the rebuilding of Europe and Japan after their destruction during the Second World War.馬歇爾計(jì)劃:計(jì)劃的目的是重建在二戰(zhàn)中摧毀的歐洲和日本 Agency of International Development; was an organization created after WW2 where member countries could invest funds to help foster economic development in underdeveloped countries in order to create a stronger world economy.國際開發(fā)總署:二戰(zhàn)后成立的組織,為了更強(qiáng)大的全球經(jīng)濟(jì),成員國可以在不發(fā)達(dá)國家投資促進(jìn)經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展 GATT (General Agreement of Tariffs and Trade); In 1947 GATT was ratified by 23 member nations. Their goal was to limit trade barriers and increase global trade among nations.關(guān)稅和貿(mào)易總協(xié)定:1947年23個(gè)國家批準(zhǔn)了GATT,他們的目標(biāo)是降低貿(mào)易壁壘和增加全球貿(mào)易 During the world wars trade amongst warring nations had all but stopped, and in the period between the wars there was an atmosphere of protectionism. This lead to tariffs as high as 60% on many products to limit trade, and is one of the causes of The Great Depression! After the wars world leaders sought cooperation and trade!戰(zhàn)爭期間,交戰(zhàn)國的貿(mào)易停止了,貿(mào)易保護(hù)主義盛行,許多產(chǎn)品的關(guān)稅高達(dá)60%,這限制了貿(mào)易,這也是導(dǎo)致經(jīng)濟(jì)大蕭條的原因之一,戰(zhàn)后世界的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者尋求合作和貿(mào)易 The World Trade Organization (WTO); Was created in 1994 as an institution to deal with, and eliminate trade disputes amongst the 132 member countries.世貿(mào):1994成立的機(jī)構(gòu)旨在處理和消除132個(gè)成員國之間的貿(mào)易爭端 The International Monetary Fund (IMF); Was formed after WW2 to stabilise foreign exchange rates and the establishment of freely convertible currencies to facilitate the expansion and balanced growth of international trade. (181 member countries)國際貨幣基金組織:二戰(zhàn)后成立,致力于穩(wěn)定貨幣匯率和建立自由兌換貨幣促進(jìn)擴(kuò)張,平衡國際貿(mào)易的增長（181個(gè)成員國） The World Bank; Is an institution that has as its goal the reduction of poverty and the improvement of living standards by promoting sustainable growth and investment in people.世界銀行:這一機(jī)構(gòu)的目標(biāo)在于減少貧困,提高生活質(zhì)量,促進(jìn)可持續(xù)增長和投資 International Trade Theories國際貿(mào)易理論 Adam Smith and Absolute Advantage亞當(dāng)斯密和絕對優(yōu)勢 Absolute advantage; The advantage that exists when a country has a monopoly on producing a specific product or is able to produce it more efficiently than all other countries. 絕對優(yōu)勢:一個(gè)國家在特定商品上壟斷或比其他國家生產(chǎn)效率更高的優(yōu)勢 David Ricardo and Comparative Advantage大衛(wèi)李嘉圖和相對優(yōu)勢 Comparative Advantage; The theory that states that a country should sell to other countries those products it produces most effectively and efficiently, and buy from other countries those products it cannot produce as effectively or efficiently. 相對優(yōu)勢:這個(gè)理論表明一個(gè)國家應(yīng)向其他國家銷售其能高效生產(chǎn)的商品,購買其不能高效生產(chǎn)的商品 Heckscher Ohlin and Factor Endowments赫克舍奧林和具備的生產(chǎn)要素 Follow along the line of Comparative Advantage, Heckscher and Ohlin suggest that some countries have natural advantages, known as factors.依照相對優(yōu)勢理論,赫克舍奧林提出國家應(yīng)該有自然優(yōu)勢如各種要素 Thus; A country will have a Comparative Advantage in products that require resources that are abundant in that country.因此,一個(gè)國家要在充足的自然資源生產(chǎn)的產(chǎn)品上有相對優(yōu)勢 Country Similarity Theory國家相似理論 Economist, Steffen Linder, in 1960, suggested that trade between countries for manufactured goods depended on the similarities in consumer preferences, production conditions, and economic development stage. Economic and social similarity increases level of trade between countries.經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家史蒂芬琳達(dá)1960年提出國家間商品的交換依靠相似的消費(fèi)者選擇,生產(chǎn)環(huán)境,經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展階段,經(jīng)濟(jì)和社會(huì)的相似能提升國家間貿(mào)易的階段 Product Life Cycle Theory產(chǎn)品周期理論 Raymond Vernon, Is very similar to The Product Life Cycle Theory, but includes the factors of global competition and trade. He says that within the PLC there are three stages of international product growth. They are;雷蒙德弗農(nóng)提出與產(chǎn)品周期理論相似的理論,但包括全球競爭和貿(mào)易的因素,他說在產(chǎn)品周期理論內(nèi)國際產(chǎn)品增長有三個(gè)階段 1. New Product Stage; Entrepreneurs launch a new product in their home market, where they understand the environment.新產(chǎn)品階段:企業(yè)家在國內(nèi)市場推行新產(chǎn)品,他們了解市場環(huán)境 2. Mature Product Stage; Demand for the product expands faster then supply as customers alter their choices and adopt new styling. As demand moves offshore so does production!成熟產(chǎn)品階段:對產(chǎn)品的需求迅速增長,然后供給滿足消費(fèi)者的不同選擇和采用新款式,產(chǎn)品的需求和生產(chǎn)到達(dá)國外 3. Standardized Product Stage; Demand for the product stabilizes. The innovative features of the product no longer exist. Production moves to the lowest cost locations as demand drops.標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化產(chǎn)品階段:產(chǎn)品的需求穩(wěn)定,產(chǎn)品創(chuàng)新的特點(diǎn)不再存在,隨著需求下降,生產(chǎn)轉(zhuǎn)移到低成本地區(qū) Balance of Payments收支平衡 Balance of Payments; The system of accounts that records a nations international financial transactions.收支平衡:記錄一個(gè)國家的國際金融處理的賬目系統(tǒng) Trade Surplus; A favourable balance of trade; occurs when the value of a countrys exports exceeds that of its imports.貿(mào)易順差:有利的貿(mào)易平衡,一國出口的貿(mào)易額超過進(jìn)口 Trade Deficit; An unfavourable balance of trade; occurs when the value of a countrys imports exceeds that of its exports.貿(mào)易逆差:不利的貿(mào)易平衡,一國進(jìn)口的貿(mào)易額超過出口 Exchange Rate; Refers to the value of a currency in relation to the values of other currencies.匯率:本國貨幣價(jià)值與其他貨幣價(jià)值的關(guān)系 Purchasing Power Parity (PPP); The value of a countries currency and the cost of living in that country, compared to the value of another currency in another country and the cost of living in that country.購買力同等:一國貨幣的價(jià)值與生活成本與另一國相比較 Protectionism貿(mào)易保護(hù)主義 Protectionism; The use of government regulations to limit the import of goods and services.貿(mào)易保護(hù)主義政府條例的使用限制商品和服務(wù)的進(jìn)口 Trade Barriers; Are barriers put in place by governments to restrict or prevent international trade.貿(mào)易壁壘:政府設(shè)置壁壘限制或阻止國際貿(mào)易 Tariff; A tax imposed on imports.關(guān)稅強(qiáng)加到進(jìn)口上的稅 Quota; Is a specific unit or dollar limit applied to a particular type of good.限額:對特定商品限制交易量和交易額 Voluntary Export Restrictions; (VER) or Orderly Market Agreements; (OMA); are agreements between importing and exporting countries for a restriction on the volume of exports.自愿出口限制或有序市場協(xié)議:是進(jìn)口和出口國對大量出口限制的協(xié)議 Boycott; Is an absolute restriction against the purchase and importation of certain goods from other countries.聯(lián)合抵制:是對從其它國家進(jìn)口特定商品的絕對的限制 Embargo; Is a refusal to sell to a specific country.禁止或限制貿(mào)易:拒絕和特定國家貿(mào)易 Monetary Barrier; Restrictions on money exchange.貨幣壁壘:對貨幣兌換的限制 Standard; Standards on product safety and quality and business rules.標(biāo)準(zhǔn):產(chǎn)品安全和質(zhì)量的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和商業(yè)準(zhǔn)則 Antidumping Penalties; Limits on imports based on predatory pricing, to prevent dumping. 反傾銷處罰:對掠奪性定價(jià)商品的限制,目的是防止傾銷 Definitions and Origins of Culture所謂文化及其起源 Culture; Is the sum of the values, rituals, symbols, beliefs, and thought processes that are learned, and shared by a group of people, and transmitted from generation to generation.文化即一群人共同擁有,認(rèn)知并世代相傳的價(jià)值觀,宗教,符號(hào),信仰和思維方式的總和。 Elements of Culture文化的諸要素 Rokeach;羅克奇,一人名,以價(jià)值觀調(diào)查Rokeach Values Survey著稱于世。 Values; Is an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence.價(jià)值觀：是一種持久的信念，此信念是對某一特定行為模式或存在的最終狀態(tài)的偏好，優(yōu)于另一相對的行為模式或存在的最終狀態(tài)。 Beliefs; Is a mental acceptance of and conviction in the truth, actuality, or validity of something.信仰：即對真理、事實(shí)或某物的正確性的心理認(rèn)同。 Attitudes; Is a mental predisposition to view a particular person, object, or idea in either positive or negative terms.態(tài)度或稱看法，即當(dāng)面臨一特定的人,物體,或想法時(shí)，從積極或消極的方面考慮的心理傾向。 Three Types of Beliefs信仰的三種類型 1. Existential beliefs; which are capable of being true or false.存在主義信仰：以真假為標(biāo)準(zhǔn)評價(jià)事物。 2. Evaluative beliefs; where in the object or belief is judged to be good or bad.評價(jià)信仰：以好和壞評價(jià)事物。 3. Prescriptive beliefs; in which some means or end of action is judged to be desirable or undesirable.規(guī)范的信仰：以滿意不滿意來判定某種方法或行為。 Two Categories of Values兩種類型的價(jià)值觀 Terminal values; values concerning desirable end states of existence.終極價(jià)值觀：關(guān)于最理想的最終存在方式的價(jià)值觀念。 Instrumental values; values concerning desirable modes of conduct.工具價(jià)值觀：關(guān)于最理想的行為模式的價(jià)值觀念。 Individualism/Collectivism Index個(gè)人主義/集體主義指數(shù) The Individualism/collectivism Index refers to the preference for behaviour that promotes ones self-interest.是指有利于自身利益的行為取向。 Power Distance Index權(quán)力距離系數(shù) Power Distance Index measures the tolerance of social inequality, that is, power inequality between superiors and subordinates within a social system. 權(quán)力距離系數(shù)反映人們對社會(huì)不平等，即在某一社會(huì)制度中上下級(jí)間的權(quán)力不平等情況的容忍度。 Uncertainty Avoidance Index風(fēng)險(xiǎn)回避指數(shù) The Uncertainty Avoidance Index measures the tolerance of uncertainty and ambiguity among members of a society.不確定性回避系數(shù)反應(yīng)了社會(huì)成員對模棱兩可或不確定性的容忍程度。 Cultures that score higher on individualism and lower on uncertainty avoidance tend to be more innovative. 研究表明：個(gè)人主義指數(shù)高、不確定回避指數(shù)低的文化往往更喜歡創(chuàng)新。 Cultural Knowledge對文化的了解 Factual Knowledge; Knowledge about a culture that is obvious and has to be learned.事實(shí)性知識(shí):必須學(xué)習(xí)的顯而易見的文化知識(shí)。 Interpretive Knowledge; An ability to understand and to appreciate fully the nuances of different cultural traits and patterns.解釋性知識(shí):完全理解乃至能鑒賞不同文化特質(zhì)和形態(tài)之間的細(xì)微差別。 Cultural Sensitivity; Being attuned to the nuances of culture so that a new culture can be viewed objectively, evaluated, and appreciated.關(guān)注文化間的細(xì)微差別以便客觀的看待一種新的文化，對這種文化進(jìn)行評估和欣賞。 Culture is dynamic in nature; it is a living process. The fact that cultural change is constant seems paradoxical, because another important attribute of culture is that it is conservative and resists change.文化是動(dòng)態(tài)的， 是一個(gè)活生生的過程。然而文化變革持續(xù)不斷這一事實(shí)似乎又有些矛盾，因?yàn)槲幕牧硪粋€(gè)重要特性就是它的保守性，抵制變革。 Cultural Borrowing; One culture or society learning news ways of dealing with new or old problems by learning from other societies or cultures.一種文化或社會(huì)向另一種文化或社會(huì)學(xué)習(xí)解決自身新舊問題的新方法的行為。 Hofstedes Data; Another look!回顧一下；霍夫施泰德數(shù)據(jù)； More innovative cultures who accept change easier are;更容易接受變革的創(chuàng)新型文化往往具有以下特點(diǎn)： Have higher INDIVIDUALISM! (IDV) 個(gè)人主義指數(shù)較高 Have lower POWER DISTANCE! (PDI)權(quán)力距離指數(shù)較低 Have lower UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE! (UAI)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)回避指數(shù)較低 Required Adaption必要的適應(yīng) There are ten basic criteria that all who wish to deal with individuals, firms, or authorities in foreign countries should be able to meet;作為適應(yīng)的指導(dǎo)原則，凡與他國人士、企業(yè)和政府機(jī)構(gòu)打交道的人都應(yīng)遵守以下10個(gè)基本準(zhǔn)則： 1. open tolerance,包容 2. flexibility,靈活 3. humility,謙遜 4. justice/fairness,公平與公正 5. ability to adjust to varying tempos,能適應(yīng)不同的工作節(jié)奏 6. curiosity and interest,好奇心與興趣 7. knowledge of the country,對他國的了解 8. liking for others,喜歡他人 9. ability to command respect, 能贏得別人尊重10. ability to integrate oneself into the environment. 能入鄉(xiāng)隨俗. Business customs can be grouped into; 商業(yè)習(xí)俗可被歸結(jié)為； Cultural Imperatives; customs that must be recognized and accommodated. 文化的強(qiáng)制性；必須承認(rèn)和遵守的習(xí)俗。 Cultural Electives; customs to which adaption is helpful, but not necessary.文化的選擇性；這些習(xí)俗，適應(yīng)了很好，不適應(yīng)也沒關(guān)系。 Cultural Exclusives; customs to which an outsider must not participate.文化的排他性；外人斷不可介入的習(xí)俗和行為方式。 Cultural Imperatives; are the business customs and expectations that must be met and confronted to or avoided if relationships are to be successful.有些商業(yè)習(xí)俗具有強(qiáng)制性，要么遵守它，要么避開它。要保持雙方良好的關(guān)系，就必定會(huì)遇到這個(gè)問題。 Cultural Electives; relate to areas of behaviour or to customs that cultural aliens may wish to conform to or participate in but that are not required. 指某些文化習(xí)俗和慣例，來自不同文化的人或許愿意遵守或者參與，但是并非必須這樣。 Cultural Exclusives; are those customs or behaviour patterns reserved exclusively for the locals and from which a foreigner is barred.是指當(dāng)?shù)厮赜械囊恍┝?xí)俗和行為方式，“外人”不可介入。 High/Low-Context Continuum;高/低語境連續(xù)統(tǒng)一體，（老實(shí)說，這個(gè)概念涉及語言學(xué)，解釋起來有點(diǎn)復(fù)雜，但是秉著負(fù)責(zé)任的態(tài)度，我還是要試著解釋一下：在有些文化中，信息是明確表達(dá)的，詞語本身包含了要表達(dá)的大部分信息。而在另一些文化環(huán)境下，通過語言傳達(dá)的信息不多，更多的是依賴于語境表達(dá)。主要靠語境表達(dá)的就是高語境文化。） No language translates directly into another as the meanings of words differ, and the rules of grammar differ.大概沒有哪一種語言能夠毫不費(fèi)力地翻譯成另外一種語言。 Verbal; Language, no matter how imprecise, is at least explicit!語言溝通無論怎樣不精確，但至少是明確表達(dá)的。 Non-verbal; messages communicated through unspoken cues, and are implicit, and often difficult to catch!非語言溝通：信息交流常常通過未說出口的、不易捕捉到的線索或暗示。 M-Time; Monochronic; Stick to schedules, time is very important. (ie, North America)單一時(shí)間利用方式；嚴(yán)格按照時(shí)間表，時(shí)間對于他們非常重要。比如美國，德國，瑞士人。 Most low context cultures operate on M-time.大多數(shù)低語境國家采用單一時(shí)間利用方式。 P-Time; Polychronic; Emphasizes relationships over schedules and time. (ie. Traditional cultures like Latin America)多種時(shí)間利用方式；重視人際關(guān)系超過時(shí)刻表。比如說因循傳統(tǒng)文化的拉丁美洲。 Most high context cultures operate on P-time.大多數(shù)高語境國家采用多種時(shí)間利用方式。 Sovereign State; is independent and free from all external control; enjoys full legal equality with other states; governs its own territory; selects its own political, economic, and social systems; and has the power to enter into agreements with other nations.主權(quán)國家;乃不受外部干預(yù)之獨(dú)立自由國家，享有選擇其政治，經(jīng)濟(jì)，社會(huì)制度，締結(jié)和約，和領(lǐng)土自治之權(quán)。 Sovereignty; the ability of a state to independent of all other states. 主權(quán)；其獨(dú)立自治之能。 Nationalism; an intense feeling of national pride and unity.一種強(qiáng)烈的民族團(tuán)結(jié),和自豪感。 Ethnocentrism; consumers perfer domestic goods.民族優(yōu)越感，即消費(fèi)者更青睞國貨. Confiscation, Expropriation, and Domestication充公,征用,和國有化 Confiscation; The seizing of company assets without payment.無償剝奪企業(yè)資產(chǎn) Expropriation;Where the government seizes company assets but pays for those assets.政府會(huì)相應(yīng)的付錢給被征用的公司。 Domestication; Gradually transfer company assets to government control.將公司逐漸的轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)橛蓢铱刂?Economic Risks經(jīng)濟(jì)風(fēng)險(xiǎn) Exchange Controls; Limiting the exchange of one currency for another.交換控制：限制貨幣與貨幣的交換。 Local-Content Laws; Laws specifying that there must be a certain level of local content in labour or material in order to have access to the market. 產(chǎn)品本地化的法律規(guī)定：法律指定本地勞動(dòng)力和原料要達(dá)到一定程度以適應(yīng)和利用本地市場。 Import Restrictions; Selective restrictions on the amount of goods or services that may be imported, creating the need for local suppliers.進(jìn)口限制：在進(jìn)口的商品或服務(wù)的數(shù)量上選擇性限制，為本地供應(yīng)商創(chuàng)造需求。 Tax Controls; Taxes imposed on foreign revenue generated in a domestic market which is higher than that paid by domestic companies.賦稅控制：在國內(nèi)市場，對國外企業(yè)利潤的賦稅的征收要比國內(nèi)企業(yè)高。 Price Controls; Controls placed on essential goods to protect consumers.價(jià)格控制：對一些必要產(chǎn)品的控制以保護(hù)消費(fèi)者 Labour Problems; Labour laws and rules are significantly different in different countries and will impact company operations in different markets.勞動(dòng)力問題：勞動(dòng)法和規(guī)則在不同國家是顯著不同的，這會(huì)影響公司在不同市場的運(yùn)作。 Political and Social Activists政治和社會(huì)上的積極分子 PSA are group who have a political agenda and use protesting and lobbying to guide and sway public opinion and the political landscape in a certain direction.政治和社會(huì)上的積極分子有著政治議程，使用抗議和游說的手段來引導(dǎo)和影響公眾選擇和政治前景朝著特定方向發(fā)展。 Country Risk; broadly refers to the likelihood that a foreign government may be unable or unwilling to fulfill its obligations toward one or more lenders or business investors.國家風(fēng)險(xiǎn)：廣泛涉及很可能一個(gè)國外政府不能或不愿意履行一個(gè)或更多的貸方或商業(yè)投資人的債務(wù)。Accurately evaluating the exposure to country risk in emerging market economies and developing countries has become a critical task for the international marketer.準(zhǔn)確的評估國家風(fēng)險(xiǎn)在新興市場和發(fā)展中國家對國際市場營銷者來說是很重要的任務(wù)They carefully watch political and military activities, as well as general economic trends, in determining business and marketing strategies.他們謹(jǐn)慎的關(guān)注政治和軍事活動(dòng)和經(jīng)濟(jì)的大致趨勢來決定商業(yè)和市場營銷策略。 PRS; developed a method of assessing country political risk called ICRG model.開發(fā)一種評估國家風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的叫做ICRG模式的方法 International Country Risk Guide Model; (ICRG); An indicator system that provides detailed and consistant country risk ratings covering a broad range of risk factors. 一種指示器系統(tǒng)能夠提供詳細(xì)的和持續(xù)的國家風(fēng)險(xiǎn)等級(jí)包括的寬范圍的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素 Reducing Political Vulnerability如何減少政治弱點(diǎn) There are measures a company can take that can reduce the degree of vulnerability to political risk such as;有些方法可以減少政治風(fēng)險(xiǎn)弱點(diǎn)程度 1. Joint Ventures; Joining forces with a local company to reduce the foreign risk element. Domestic firms have distribution and understand the market and the culture.合資企業(yè)：于當(dāng)?shù)毓竞腺Y減小外國風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素，國內(nèi)公司有分配并且理解市場和文化 2. Expanding the Investment Base; Including local investors such as banks who have local political clout in the investment opportunity.擴(kuò)大投資基礎(chǔ)：在投資機(jī)會(huì)中包括當(dāng)?shù)氐南胥y行這樣有政治影響力的投資者 Shared return, shared risk! 分享回報(bào) 分擔(dān)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。 3. Licensing; Getting a fee for allowing a company to use your intellectual property or brand. This is very common in franchising as well as the software industry.許可經(jīng)營：從使用你知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)和品牌的公司那里得到利益。 4. Planned Domestication; A long range plan to slowly allow local interests to take over an investment once the desired return targets have been met.有計(jì)劃的本土化：一個(gè)長期的緩慢的讓當(dāng)?shù)亟庸芡顿Y的計(jì)劃，一旦公司預(yù)期的回報(bào)目標(biāo)實(shí)現(xiàn) 5. Political payoffs; Payoffs and bribes are illegal in many western countries such as Canada. In some countries they are a legitimate method of doing business.政治獻(xiàn)金：報(bào)酬和賄賂在加拿大這樣的許多西方國家是不合法的 在一些國家是合法的商業(yè)手段。 6. Economic Contributions and Corporate Philanthropy ; Making investments that help the local economy or population that are outside the realm of the profit seeking nature of an investment can create a positive environment for a company.經(jīng)濟(jì)貢獻(xiàn)和公司慈善：進(jìn)行投資幫助投資收益外的當(dāng)?shù)亟?jīng)濟(jì)和居民能為公司創(chuàng)造有力的環(huán)境 Relations between governments and foreign companies is generally positive if the investment;政府與外企的關(guān)系一般是積極的如果投資是： 1. Improves the balance of payments by increasing exports and reducing imports通過增加出口和減少進(jìn)口來改善支付平衡 2. Uses local resources.使用當(dāng)?shù)刭Y源 3. transfers capital, technology, or skills.引進(jìn)資金 工藝 技術(shù) 4. create jobs.更多的工作機(jī)會(huì) 5. makes tax contributions.納稅 There are different types of legal systems across the globe having different bases for their foundations.各國因基礎(chǔ)的不同而有不同的法定系統(tǒng) Laws; are the rules by which society has agreed are necessary for society to function fairly for all its members.法律：是被社會(huì)承認(rèn)的對社會(huì)必要對社會(huì)成員公平的規(guī)則 Legal System; Is the system or set of procedures