論述題：1分別說明社會保險、社會救助、社會福利和社會優(yōu)撫的原則。P28-29 在社會保障體系內(nèi)部，各種項目各有不同的原則。（一）社會救助的原則社會救助的原則包括選擇性原則、人道主義原則、受助權(quán)利原則、最低生活原則。社會救助的對象中限于貧困和受災人群。救助貧困和受災人群是政府的責任，也是受助者應該享受的權(quán)利。（二）社會保險的原則社會保險的原則是權(quán)利與義務相結(jié)合原則、統(tǒng)籌互濟原則。社會保險的對象主要是在業(yè)雇員。國家建立社會保險制度是為了實現(xiàn)保險對象之間的團結(jié)互助，同舟共濟，共同承受等風險。是否享受保險取決于是否參加保險；享受保險的水平高低一般與受保人承擔保險繳費的多少相關(guān)，這就是“權(quán)利與義務相結(jié)合”。（三）社會福利的原則社會福利的原則是普遍性與選擇性相結(jié)合的原則。它采用的是普遍性與選擇性相結(jié)合的原則，或者普惠大眾，人人共享；或者選擇性地對一部分人錦上添花。（四）社會優(yōu)撫的原則社會優(yōu)撫的原則是權(quán)利與義務相結(jié)合的原則，勵軍榮軍的原則。社會優(yōu)撫一方面是為了激勵軍人保家衛(wèi)國，另一方面也是軍人的權(quán)利。為軍人建立社會優(yōu)撫制度是政府的責任，也是一般國民對軍人的應有回報。通過物質(zhì)激勵和榮譽激勵，會鼓勵青年人參軍報國的積極性，增強軍人參軍報國的榮譽感。2試述養(yǎng)老保險制度模式。P76-77 世界各國的養(yǎng)老保險制度模式分類如下：（一）福利國家型 福利國家型養(yǎng)老保險制度以瑞典為典型。在福利國家型養(yǎng)老保險制度下：保險覆蓋全民，遵循“普惠制”原則，養(yǎng)老基金主要由政府和企業(yè)負責，國民到達養(yǎng)老年齡（無論是否工作過）都可以得到養(yǎng)老金，因此根據(jù)普惠制原則民發(fā)放的養(yǎng)老金也被稱為“普遍年金”。（二）社會保險型社會保險型養(yǎng)老保險制度以德國為典型。在社會保險型養(yǎng)老保險制度下：保險覆蓋在業(yè)雇員，而不是全民；政府、企業(yè)、個人三方共同繳費，保險待遇與保險繳費相關(guān)聯(lián)。（三）國家保險型國家保險型養(yǎng)老保險制度曾經(jīng)在社會主義計劃經(jīng)濟國家中實行，以蘇聯(lián)和改革前的中國為代表。在國家保險型養(yǎng)老保險制度下：保險覆蓋在業(yè)職工，個人不繳費，國家制度政策，用人單位代表國家實施保險，保險待遇高低與工資高低緊密關(guān)聯(lián)。（四）個人儲蓄型個人儲蓄型養(yǎng)老保險制度以新加坡和智利為典型。在個人儲蓄型養(yǎng)老保險制度下：保險覆蓋在業(yè)雇員；企業(yè)和個人繳納保險費。 以上四種制度模式類型劃分是很粗略的。3試述醫(yī)療保險制度的幾種模式。P103-106 因為各國經(jīng)濟發(fā)展水平等不同，其所采用的醫(yī)療保險制度實踐也有很大差異。世界上現(xiàn)行的醫(yī)療保險制度大致可分為：（一）國民健康保險模式國民健康醫(yī)療保險又稱國家保障型醫(yī)療保險或全民醫(yī)療保險，是指國家為全體社會成員提供近乎免費的醫(yī)療服務。保險資金來自于政府的稅收，公民看病時不需要支付醫(yī)療費用。英國、加拿大、瑞典等國家所實行的全民醫(yī)療保險制度都屬于國民健康保險模式。英國最早實行全民醫(yī)療保險，而且是該模式的代表者和推廣者。（二）社會醫(yī)療保險模式社會醫(yī)療保險由國家和政府通過立法強制實施，雇主和雇員分擔保險費，當社會成員發(fā)生疾病風險需要救治時，社會為其提供醫(yī)療服務和醫(yī)療費用補償，而且個人也需要承擔一定比例的醫(yī)療費用支出。社會醫(yī)療保險更強調(diào)市場化和個人責任。該模式的主要特點是：經(jīng)一，多方共擔醫(yī)療保險費；第二，采用第三方支付方式；第三，個人承擔一定比例的醫(yī)療費用。德國是世界上建立社會保險制度的國家。（三）商業(yè)醫(yī)療保險模式商業(yè)醫(yī)療保險模式通常是指由市場籌集醫(yī)療保險基金和提供醫(yī)療服務，整個保險程序和商業(yè)保險一致，政府會通過相應的立法予以規(guī)范和監(jiān)督。商業(yè)醫(yī)療保險是完全的市場化運作。美國是商業(yè)醫(yī)療保險模式的典型代表，以私人商業(yè)醫(yī)療保險為主。商業(yè)醫(yī)療保險模式的優(yōu)點在于充分發(fā)揮了市場機制的效率，政府財政負擔較小，使該模式缺乏社會公平性。（四）合作醫(yī)療保險模式合作醫(yī)療保險以社區(qū)為基礎(chǔ)，它主要存在于中國農(nóng)村。由于其覆蓋人數(shù)眾多，與覆蓋城鎮(zhèn)職工和居民的“社會醫(yī)療保險模式”一起，共同構(gòu)成中國的醫(yī)療保險制度。（五）強制儲蓄醫(yī)療保險模式強制儲蓄醫(yī)療保險一反保險中的大數(shù)法則，不強調(diào)“風險共擔、互助共濟”，它強制社會成員以家庭為單位進行“縱向”籌資，本著自我負責的精神為一生中可能發(fā)生的疾病風險作準備。國家立法強制雇主和雇員雙方或者雇員單方面建立雇員個人醫(yī)療保險儲蓄賬戶即個人賬戶，以新加坡為典型。強制儲蓄醫(yī)療保險模式缺乏社會公平性，甚至沒有“互助共濟”的特征，完全靠個人能力疾病風險，非常不利于低收入群體。以上五種醫(yī)療保險制度模式的劃分是很粗略的。4社會保障管理應該遵循哪些原則：P357-359 社會保障管理的一般原則：（一）服務至上原則社會保障管理涉及成千上萬國民的基本生活問題，享受社會保障的人通常都是社會弱勢群體。所以，社會保障管理應該按照“以人為本”的精神，將社會保障對象的利益入在第一位。要求社會保障管理部門確保社會保障受益人的社會保障待遇。（二）公開、公正和效率原則社會保障制度的運行應當是透明的，社會保障管理變必然要遵循公開、公正與效率的原則。首先，社會保障管理機構(gòu)及其職責應當通過社會成員熟知的途徑與方式加以公開化，以便讓大眾接受必要的社會保障政策信息。其次，管理機構(gòu)在社會保障運行中既是責任者，更是社會保障制度公正性的維護者，并對社會保障糾紛采取不偏不倚的態(tài)度。再次，社會保障的行政管理必須講究效率。這是因為：社會保障待遇的發(fā)放關(guān)系到老百姓的基本生活，社會保障基金的所有權(quán)屬于所有人。（三）屬地管理原則社會保障它通過在一事實上區(qū)域內(nèi)設置實施機構(gòu)來完成項目實施任務，因此，各國的社會保障事務通常都是在國家法律、法規(guī)的統(tǒng)一規(guī)范下，由各地區(qū)組織實施并由各地區(qū)的社會保障管理機構(gòu)負責管理與監(jiān)督。（四）與相關(guān)系統(tǒng)協(xié)調(diào)一致原則社會保障是一個獨立運行的系統(tǒng)，但它與其它社會系統(tǒng)和經(jīng)濟系統(tǒng)卻存在不可分割的聯(lián)系。在運行中需要與其他系統(tǒng)保持協(xié)調(diào)一致。在社會保障管理系統(tǒng)內(nèi)部，不同的管理機構(gòu)亦需要在明確職責、分工負責的基礎(chǔ)上保持某種程度的合作。5試述中國農(nóng)村社會保障有哪些功能？P325-326 我國農(nóng)村社會保障制度已經(jīng)發(fā)揮并交繼續(xù)發(fā)揮巨大的功能。從總體上看，農(nóng)村社會保障制度的功能主要體現(xiàn)在以下兩個方面：（一） 經(jīng)濟功能 收入補償功能：是指當農(nóng)村社會成員遇到各種自然或社會風險時， 國家和社會通過社會保障制度安排為其提供基本的生活資料和服務，使其維持一定的收入水平，以保障其基本的生存權(quán)利。在農(nóng)村社會救助和農(nóng)村扶貧開發(fā)制度中，國家和社會成為制度的實施主體，可以說，農(nóng)村社會保障制度具有顯著的收入補償功能。 保障農(nóng)村勞動力再生產(chǎn)功能一方面，農(nóng)村社會保障通過對農(nóng)村居民的收入進行補償，維持了一定的生活水平以更好地繁衍后代，另一方面，農(nóng)村社會福利制度中的教育福利等制度安排，保障了農(nóng)村居民接受一定的科學文化教育，提高了農(nóng)村勞動力的綜合素質(zhì)。（二） 社會功能 維持社會公平的功能長期以來，中國的經(jīng)濟社會發(fā)展呈現(xiàn)出顯著的城鄉(xiāng)二元特征，使得農(nóng)村經(jīng)濟社會的發(fā)展遠遠落后于城鎮(zhèn)，致使城鄉(xiāng)居民收入差距較大。農(nóng)村社會保障制度安排，通過國民收入的分配和再分配，使一部分社會財富從城鎮(zhèn)轉(zhuǎn)移到農(nóng)村，以彌補市場機制的缺陷，縮小的城鄉(xiāng)差距，有利于逐步實現(xiàn)社會公平。 促進社會穩(wěn)定的功能一方面可以保障農(nóng)村社會成員享受基本的生存權(quán)利，同時也使其能夠分享經(jīng)濟發(fā)展和社會進步的成果。只有農(nóng)村社會穩(wěn)定，農(nóng)村居民安居樂業(yè)，才能充分調(diào)動廣大農(nóng)村居民的生產(chǎn)積極性和創(chuàng)造性，促進健康發(fā)展。6描述我國最低生活保障制度的管理體制。P237-243 一最低生活保障制度（一）最低生活保障管理1）.最低生活保障對象管理：無生活來源，無勞動能力又無法定贍養(yǎng)人、撫養(yǎng)人或者撫養(yǎng)費，以及雖有法定贍養(yǎng)人、撫養(yǎng)人或者撫養(yǎng)人但其無贍養(yǎng)、撫養(yǎng)或者扶養(yǎng)能力的城市居民。在職人員領(lǐng)取工資（最低工資）及離退休人員領(lǐng)取離退休費，家庭月人均收入低于城市低保標準的城市居民。下崗職工進入再就業(yè)服務中心期間，月人均收入仍低于城市低保標準的城市居民。失業(yè)人員領(lǐng)取失業(yè)保險金期間，家庭月人均收入低于城市低保標準的城市居民。2）.最低生活保障資金管理最低生活保障的資金主要有兩個來源，即財政撥款和社會捐贈。最低生活保障的保障資金主要由地方財政負責。各省市對最低生活保障資金的解決主要采取分級負擔解決資金籌措問題。3.）最低生活保障的工作程序工作程序主要有以下幾個步驟：申請。申請人要向戶口所在地的街道辦事處、鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)政府提出申請。調(diào)查。審核、審批。發(fā)放。動態(tài)管理。行政復議和行政訴訟。4.）最低生活保障管理體制最低生產(chǎn)保障制度實行地方各級人民政府負責制，實行的是政府領(lǐng)導，民政部門和社會各界相互配合的管理體制。國務院民政部門負責全國最低生活保障的管理工作。（二）最低生活保障標準計算方法目前最低生活保障標準的計算方法主要有以下幾種。1. 市場菜籃子法2. 恩格爾系數(shù)法：上海市采用的恩格爾系數(shù)計算公式是：最低生活保障標準（基本營養(yǎng)所需食品消費量×各種食品等混合平均單價）÷恩格爾系數(shù)低收入家庭居民月食品費用÷恩格爾系數(shù)3. 收入比例法4. 其他方法（三）最低生活保障的家計調(diào)查1. 家計調(diào)查的主管機構(gòu)由民政部及其下屬各部門主管。街道是管轄基層居民保障工作，區(qū)財政部門負責最低生活保障資金的核撥工作，并對最低生活保障資金的使用情況進行檢查。2. 家計調(diào)查的內(nèi)容采用資源調(diào)查型，需要對收入及財產(chǎn)進行認定。3. 家計調(diào)查式主要有入戶調(diào)查、鄰里走訪、信函索證三種。Editor's note: Judson Jones is a meteorologist, journalist and photographer. He has freelanced with CNN for four years, covering severe weather from tornadoes to typhoons. Follow him on Twitter: jnjonesjr (CNN) - I will always wonder what it was like to huddle around a shortwave radio and through the crackling static from space hear the faint beeps of the world's first satellite - Sputnik. I also missed watching Neil Armstrong step foot on the moon and the first space shuttle take off for the stars. Those events were way before my time.As a kid, I was fascinated with what goes on in the sky, and when NASA pulled the plug on the shuttle program I was heartbroken. Yet the privatized space race has renewed my childhood dreams to reach for the stars.As a meteorologist, I've still seen many important weather and space events, but right now, if you were sitting next to me, you'd hear my foot tapping rapidly under my desk. I'm anxious for the next one: a space capsule hanging from a crane in the New Mexico desert.It's like the set for a George Lucas movie floating to the edge of space.You and I will have the chance to watch a man take a leap into an unimaginable free fall from the edge of space - live.The (lack of) air up there Watch man jump from 96,000 feet Tuesday, I sat at work glued to the live stream of the Red Bull Stratos Mission. I watched the balloons positioned at different altitudes in the sky to test the winds, knowing that if they would just line up in a vertical straight line "we" would be go for launch.I feel this mission was created for me because I am also a journalist and a photographer, but above all I live for taking a leap of faith - the feeling of pushing the envelope into uncharted territory.The guy who is going to do this, Felix Baumgartner, must have that same feeling, at a level I will never reach. However, it did not stop me from feeling his pain when a gust of swirling wind kicked up and twisted the partially filled balloon that would take him to the upper end of our atmosphere. As soon as the 40-acre balloon, with skin no thicker than a dry cleaning bag, scraped the ground I knew it was over.How claustrophobia almost grounded supersonic 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