*,,,,,,,,,,單擊此處編輯母版標(biāo)題樣式,,單擊此處編輯母版文本樣式,,第二級,,第三級,,第四級,,第五級,,,The Nature of Human Language,,Language and linguistics,,Brain and language,,Introduction to,Language and Linguistics,What is language?,,What is grammar?,,What is linguistics?,,What is Language?,Language is a tool for exchanging information,,Language is a system of vocal sounds and its written representation,,Language is a set of grammatical rules,,Language can be any means of communication, e.g., signs, gestures, animal sounds, symbols used in computer,,Language,,A tentative definition:,,,Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols or signs used for human communication.,,,Question:,,,In what ways are human languages different from systems of non-human communication?,Nature of language,,Arbitrariness,,Duality,,Creativity,,Displacement,,Cultural transmission,,Interchangeability,Nature of language,,Exercise:,,What are the design features of human languages in the following phenomena?,,We cannot explain why we call the thing we use to write a “pen” in English and “,鋼筆”,in Chinese.,,A large number of words can be formed out of a small set of sounds, and out of the huge number of words there can be endless numbers of sentences, which in turn can form unlimited numbers of texts.,,Everyday we send messages that have never before been sent and understand novel messages. Much of what we say and hear, we say and hear for the first time.,,We can talk about an event which took place 3000 years ago or a place which is 5 kilometers away.,,We can acquire our mother tongue and can also learn a foreign language.,,Any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.,,Animal “l(fā)anguages”,,Discussion:,,How do you explain the parrot’s imitation of human language? Can a parrot really talk?,,A dog can understand its master’s orders and inform its master of possible danger. Can a dog talk?,,Bees can communicate to other bees the distance, direction, quality, and quantity of a food source with a unique dance. Can t,,What are the functions of language?,Informative,,Performative,,Emotive,,Interpersonal,,Phatic,,Recreational,,Metalingual,,Exercise:,,What functions of language do the following expressions serve?,,The earth is round.,,Dear Sir or Madam,,I name this ship Queen Elizabeth.,,Good heavens!,,A nice day, isn’t it?,,Good, better, best, Never let it rest;,,Till good is better, And better best.,,The plural form of the word “bus” is “buses”.,,Linguistics,Definition:,,,Linguistics is the scientific study of language.,,Linguistic knowledge,,Knowledge of the sound system,,Knowledge of words,,Knowledge of sentences,,Knowledge of discourses,,Linguistic competence and linguistic performance,Competence,,is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.,,Performance,is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances.,,A speaker’s,competence,,is stable but his,performance,is often influenced by psychological and social factors,,Linguistic studies,Main brunches of linguistics,,Phonetics,,Phonology,,Morphology,,Syntax,,Semantics,,Pragmatics,,Macrolinguistics,,Phycholinguistics,,Sociolinguistics,,Computational linguistics,,…,,Linguistics,Significance of linguistic study,,Theoretical importance:,,Linguistic theories can be applied to other related social sciences than language study itself, such as literature, sociology, psychology, etc.,,Practical importance:,,Translation, education, speech therapy, etc.,,What is Grammar?,,The,grammar,of a language consists of the sounds and sound patterns, the basic units of meaning such as words, and the rules to combine all these to form sentences with the desired meaning.,,Grammar,,Mental grammar:,,The internalized grammar that speakers have in their brains,,Descriptive grammar,,The model or description of the speakers’ linguistic capacity,,Prescriptive grammar,,A grammar that attempts to legislate what speakers’ grammar should be,,Teaching grammar,,A grammar used to learn a foreign language or a dialect,,Grammar,,Prescriptive,vs.,descriptive,,Traditional grammar is prescriptive. Grammarians tried to lay down rules for the correct use of language,,Linguistics is a descriptive science. Linguists try to discover and record the rules to which the speakers actually conform and not to impose upon them any norms of correctness,,The development of grammar,All normal children can acquire any language they are exposed to with apparent ease,,They seem to pick up language just from hearing it spoken around them,,By about age five, children have acquired nearly the entire adult grammar,,,Human beings are born with an innate “blueprint” for language,,-- Chomsky,,Language Universals,,Universal Grammar (UG):,,The innate principles and properties that pertain to the grammars of all human languages,,The universal properties – the laws of language – are part of the human biological endowment,,Brain and Language,,The Human Brain,,Cortex: the surface of the brain,,Cerebral hemispheres: left and right,,Corpus,callosum,: the fibrous network that connects the two hemispheres,,The brain is not a uniform mass,,,The Modularity of the Brain,The brain is divided into distinct anatomical faculties that are directly responsible for specific cognitive functions,,The lateralization of functions: each cognitive function is localized primarily on one side of the brain or the other,,Contralateral,brain function: the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body, and conversely.,,The Modularity of the Brain,Lateral (external) view of the left hemisphere,,The Modularity of the Brain,1864 Paul,Broca,,Broca’s,area – the front part of the left hemisphere,,Broca’s,aphasia – language disorders, such as labored speech, word-finding pauses, disturbed word orders and difficulties with function words,,The Modularity of the Brain,1874 Carl,Wernicke,,Wernicke’s,area – the back portion of the left hemisphere,,Wernicke’s,aphasia – language disorders, such as word substitutions, jargon and nonsense words, although the speech is fluent,,The Modularity of the Brain,,The Modularity of the Brain,Split brains,,When the corpus,callosum,is cut through, the communication between the two hemispheres is severed,,The two hemispheres are distinct,,right: pictures,,left: language,,The Modularity of the Brain,Technologies make it possible to identify and locate brain lesions, detect changes in brain activities, and relate these changes to localized brain damage and cognitive tasks.,,,e.g.: MRI,,(magnetic resonance imaging),,e.g.: PET,,(positron emission tomography),An MRI scanner,,The Autonomy of Language,The human beings are biologically equipped from birth with an autonomous language faculty that itself is highly specific and that does not derive from general human intellectual ability,,,The Autonomy of Language,Asymmetry of abilities,,e.g.: “idiot savants”,,Specific Language Impairment is a heritable disorder,,The language faculty is an autonomous, genetically determined, brain module,,Language and Brain Development,The critical period:,,The ability to learn a native language develops within a fixed period, from birth to puberty.,,The critical-age hypothesis:,,During the critical period, language acquisition proceeds easily, swiftly, and without external intervention.,,After the period, the acquisition of grammar is difficult and for some individuals never fully achieved.,,The Evolution of language,,The origin of language,,The divine theory,,The first language theory,,The invention theory,,The evolution theory,,The development of language in the species,,The vocal tract,,The brain,,The Evolution of language,,The origin of language is a mystery.,,All the theories about the origin of language are hypothetical in nature,,The possession of language distinguishes human beings from animals.,,Question:,,To have language is to be human or to be human is to have language?,,Answer:,,Which came first, the chicken or the egg?,,