外文文獻One More Time: How Do You Motivate EmployeesHow many articles, books, speeches, and workshops have pleaded plaintively, ”How do I get an employee to do what I want?”The psychology of motivation is tremendously complex, and what has been unraveled with any degree of assurance is small indeed. But the dismal ratio of knowledge to speculation has not dampened the enthusiasm for new forms of snake oil that are constantly coming on the market, many of them with academic testimonials. Doubtless this article will have no depressing impact on the market for snake oil, but since the ideas expressed in it have been tested in many corporations and other organizations, it will help-I Hope-to redress the imbalance in the aforementioned ratio. What is the simplest, surest, and most direct way of getting someone to do something? Ask? But if the person responds that he or she does not want to do it, then that calls for psychological consultation to determine the reason for such obstinacy. Tell the person? The response shows that he or she does not understand you, and now an expert in communication methods has to be brought in to show you how to get through. Give the person a monetary incentive? I do not need to remind the reader of the complexity and difficulty involved in setting up and administering an incentive system. Show the person? This means a costly training program. We need a simple way.Every audience contains the “direct action?” manager who shouts,” Kick the person!” And this type of manager is right. The surest and least circumlocuted way of getting someone to doSomething is to administer a kick in the pants-to give what might be called the KITA.There are various forms of KITA, and here are some of them:Negative physical KITA. This is a literal application of the term and was frequently used in the past. It has ,however, three major drawbacks:（1）it is inelegant;(2)it contradicts the precious image of benevolence that most organizations cherish; and (3)since it is a physical attack, it directly stimulates the autonomic nervous system, and this often results in negative feedback-the employee may just kick you in return. These factors give rise to certain taboos against negative physical KITA.In uncovering infinite sources of psychological vulnerabilities and the appropriate methods to play tunes on them, psychologists have come to the rescue of those who are no longer permitted to use negative physical KITA.” He took my rug away”; “I wonder what she meant by that;” The boss is always going around me”-these symptomatic expressions of ego sores that have been rubbed raw are the result of application of:Negative psychological KITA. This has several advantages over negative physical KITA. First, the cruelty is not visible; the bleeding is internal and comes much later. Second, since it affects the higher cortical centers of the brain with its inhibitory powers, it reduces the possibility of physical backlash. Third, since the number of psychological pains that a person can feel is almost infinite, the direction and site possibilities of the KITA are increased many times. Fourth, the person administering the kick cans manager to be above it all and let the system accomplish the dirty work. Fifth, those who practice it receive some ego satisfaction (one-upmanship), whereas they would find drawing blood abhorrent. Finally, if the employee does complain, he or she can always be accused of being paranoid; there is no tangible evidence of an actual attack.Now, what does negative KITA accomplish？If I kick you in the rear (physically or psychologically), who is motivated? I am motivated; you move! Negative KITA does not lead to motivation, but to movement .so:Positive KITA. Let us consider motivation. If I say to you,” Do this for me or the company, and in return I will give you a reward, and incentive, more status, a promotion, all the quid profuse that exist in the industrial organization,” am I motivating you? The overwhelming opinion I receive from management people is,” Yes, this is motivation.”I have a year-old Schnauzer. When it was a small puppy and I wanted it to move, I kick it in the rear and it moved. Now that I have finished its obedience training, I hold up a dog biscuit when I want the Schnauzer to move. In this instance, who is motivated-I or the dog? The dog wants the biscuit, but it is I who want it to move. Again, I am the one who is motivated, and the dog is the one who moves. In this instance all I did was apply KITA frontally; I exerted a pull instead of a push. When industry wishes to use such positive KITAs, it has available an incredible number and variety of dog biscuits (jelly beans for humans) to wave in front of employee to get them to jump. Why is it that managerial audiences are quick to see that negative KITA is not motivation, while they are almost unanimous in their judgment that positive KITA is motivation? It is because negative KITA is rape, and positive KITA is seduction. But it is infinitely worse to be seduced than to be raped; the latter is an unfortunate occurrence, while the former signifies that you were a party to your own downfall. This is why positive KITA is so popular: it is a tradition; it is the American way. The organization does not have to kick you; you kick yourself.Why is KITA not motivation？If I kick my dog (from the front or the back), he will move. And when I want him again. Similarly, I can charge a persons battery, and then recharge it, and recharge it again. But it is only when one has a generator of ones own that we can talk about motivation. One the needs no outside stimulation. One wants to do it.With this in mind, we can review some positive KITA personnel practices that were developed as attempts to instill “motivation”1、Reducing time spent at work. This represents a marvelous way of motivating people to work-getting them off the job! We have reduced (formally and informally) the time spent on the job over the last 50 or 60 years until we are finally on the way to the “612-day weekend.” An interesting of off-hour recreation programs. The philosophy here seems to be that those who play together, work together. The fact is that motivated people seek more hours of work, not fewer.2、Spiraling wages. Have these motivated people? Yes, to seek the next wage increase. Some medievalists still can be heard to say that a good depression will get employees moving. They feel that if rising wages dont or wont do the job, reducing them will.3、Fringe benefits. Industry has outdone the most welfare-minded of welfare states in dispensing cradle-to-the-grave succor. One company I know of had an informal” fringe benefit of the mouth club”going for a while. The cost of fringe benefits in this country has reached approximately 25 of the wage dollar, and we still cry for motivation.People spend less time working for more money and more secondly than ever before, and the trend cannot be reversed. These benefits are no longer rewards; they are rights. A 6-day week is inhuman, a 10-hour day is exploitation, extended medical coverage is a basic decency, and stock options are the salvation of American initiative. Unless the ante is continuously raised, the psychological reaction of employee is that the company is turning back the clock.When industry began to realize that both the economic nerve and the lazy nerve of their employees had insatiable appetites, it started to listen to the behavioral scientists who, more out of a humanist tradition than from scientific study, criticized management for not knowing how to deal with people. The next KITA easily followed.4、Human relations training. Over 30 year of teaching and, in many instances, of practicing psychological approaches to handing people have resulted in coyly human relations programs and, in the end, the same question: How do you motivate workers? Here, too, escalations have taken place. Thirty years ago it was necessary to request, “Please dont spit on the floor.” Today the same admonition requires three”pleases” before the employee fells that a superior has demonstrated the psychologically proper attitude.The failure of human relations training to produce motivation led to the conclusion that supervisors or managers themselves were not psychologically true to themselves in themselves in their practice of interpersonal decency. So an advanced form of human relations KITA, sensitivity training, was unfolded.5、Sensitivity training. Do you really, really understand yourself? Do you really, really, really cooperate? The failure of sensitivity training is now being explained, by those who have become opportunistic exploiters of the technique, as a failure to really (five time) conduct proper sensitivity training course.With the realization that there are only temporary gains form comfort and economic and interpersonal KITA, personnel managers concluded that the fault lay not in what they were doing, but in the employees failure to appreciate what they were doing. This opened up the field of communications, a whole new are of “scientifically” sanctioned KITA.6、Communications. The professor of communications was invited to join the faculty of management training programs and help in making employees understand what management was doing for them. House organs, briefing sessions, supervisory instruction on the importance of communication, and all sorts of propaganda have proliferated until today there is even an International Council of Industrial Editors. But no motivation resulted, and the obvious thought occurred that perhaps management was not hearing what the employees were saying. That led to the next KITA.7、Two-way Communication. Management ordered morale surveys, suggestion plans, and group participation programs. Then both employees and management were communicating and listening to each other more than ever, but without much improvement in motivation.The behavioral scientists began to take another look at their conceptions and their data, and they took human relations one step further. A glimmer of truth was beginning to show through in the writings of the so-called higher-order-need psychologists. People, so they said, want to actualize themselves. Unfortunately, the “actualizing” psychologists got mixed up with the human relations psychologists, and a new KITA emerged.8、Job participation. Though it may not have been the theoretical intention, job participation often became a “give them the big picture” approach. For example, if a man is tightening 10,000 nuts a day on an assembly line with a torque wrench, tell him he is building a Chevrolet. Another approach had the goal of giving employees a “feeling” that they are determining, in some measure, what they do on the job. The goal was to provide a sense of achievement rather than a substantive achievement in the task. Real achievement, of course, requires a task that makes it possible. But still there was no motivation. This led to the inevitable conclusion that the employees must be sick, and therefore to the next KITA.9、Employee counseling. The initial use of this form of KITA in a systematic fashion can be credited to the Hawthorne experiment of the Western Electric Company during the early 1930s.At that time; it was found that the employees harbored irrational feelings that were interfering with the rational operation of the factory. Counseling in this instance was a means of letting the employees unburden themselves by talking to someone about their problems. Although the counseling techniques were primitive, the program was large indeed.The counseling approach suffered as a result of experiences during Word War , when the programs themselves were found to be interfering with the operation of the organizations; the counselors had forgotten their role of benevolent listeners and were attempting to do something about the problems that they heard about. Psychological counseling, however, has managed to survive the negative impact of Word War experiences and today is beginning to flourish with renewed sophistication. But, alas, many of these programs, like all the others, do not seem to have lessened the pressure of demands to find out how to motivate workers. Hygiene VS MotivatorsLet me rephrase the perennial question this way: How do you install a generator in an employee? A brief review of my motivation-hygiene theory of job attitudes is required before theoretical and practical suggestions can be offered. The theory was first drawn from an examination of events in the lives of engineers and accountants. At least 16 other investigations, using a wide variety of populations(including some in the Communist countries)，have since been completed, marking the original research one of the most replicated studies in the field of job attitudes. The finding of these studies, along with corroboration from many other investigations using different procedures, suggest that the factors involved in producing job satisfaction（and motivation） are separate and distinct from the factors that lead to job dissatisfaction. Since separate factors need to be considered, depending on whether job satisfaction or job dissatisfaction is being examined, it follows that these two feeling are not opposites of each other. The opposite of job satisfaction; and similarly, the oppsitive of job dissatisfaction is not job satisfaction, but no job dissatisfaction.Sating the concept presents a problem in semantics, for we normally think of satisfaction and dissatisfaction as opposites-i.e., what is not satisfying must be dissatisfying, and vice versa. But when it comes to understanding the behavior of people in it comes to understanding the behavior of people in their job, more than a play on words is involved.Two different needs of human doing are involved here. One set of needs can be thought of as stemming from humankinds animal naturethe built-in drive to avoid pain from the environment, plus all the learned drives that become conditioned to the basic biological needs. For example, hunger, a basic biological drive, makes it necessary to earn money, and then money becomes a specific drive. The other set of needs relates to achieve and, through achievement, to experience psychological growth; in the industrial setting, they are the job content, Contrariwise, the stimuli inducing pain-avoidance behavior are found in the job environment.The growth or motivator factors that are intrinsic to the job are: achievement, recognition for achievement, the work itself, responsibility, and growth or advancement. The dissatisfaction-avoidance or hygiene (KITA) factors that are extrinsic to the job include: company policy and administration, supervision, interpersonal relationships, working conditions, salary, status, and security.A composite of the factors that are involved in causing job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction, drawn from samples of 1,685 employees, is shown in Exhibit . The results indicate that motivators were the primary cause of satisfaction, and hygiene factors the primary cause of unhappiness on the job. The employees, studied in 12 different investigations, included lower level supervisors, professional woman, agricultural administrators, men about to retire from management positions, hospital maintenance personnel, manufacturing supervisors, nurses, food handlers, military officers, engineers, scientists, housekeepers, teachers, technicians, female assemblers, accountants, Finnish foremen, and Hungarian engineers.They were asked what job events had occurred in their work that had led to extreme satisfaction or extreme dissatisfaction on their part. Their responses are broken down in the exhibit into percentages of total “positive” job events and of total “negative” job events. (The figures total more than 100% on doth the “hygiene” and “motivators” sides because often at least two factors can be attributed to a single event; advancement, for instance, often accompanies assumption of responsibility.)To illustrate, a typical response involving achievement that had a negative effect for the employee was, “I was unhappy because I didnt do the job successfully.” A typical response in the small number of positive job event in the company policy and administration grouping was, “I was happy because the company reorganized the section so that I didnt report any longer to the guy I didnt get along with.”As the lower right-hand part of the exhibit shows, of all the factors contributing to job satisfaction, 81% were motivators. And of all the factors contributing to the employees dissatisfaction over their work, 69% involved hygiene。再一次：如何激勵員工“我怎樣才能讓一個員工按我說的做呢？”這是在很多文章、書籍、演講和作品上人們的懇切感嘆。動機心理學(xué)是極其復(fù)雜的，并且真正能夠闡明它的斷言是很少的。但是這種超低概率的知識的推測并沒有使市場上陸續(xù)上市的新型的蛇油熱潮受到損害，其中有很多是通過學(xué)術(shù)測試的。毫無疑問這篇文章不會對蛇油的市場需求受到任何負面影響，但是自從許多公司跟其他組織已經(jīng)測試了關(guān)于它的理論，我相信它會幫助重新調(diào)整之前提到的低概率的不平衡性。 最快最直接最有效地讓人去做一些事的方法是什么呢？詢問？但是如果回答者說他或她不想去做，那就需要心理咨詢?nèi)斫沂具@種固執(zhí)背后的原因。 說出原因？回答顯示他或她不明白你說的話，現(xiàn)在交流方式這方面的專家將會幫您解決這個問題?？梢越o這個人貨幣刺激？我不用提醒讀者建立和管理激勵系統(tǒng)的復(fù)雜性和難度。教這個人?這意味著一個耗費多的培訓(xùn)項目。我們需要一個簡單的方法。 每一個讀者都能包容那個“直接行動”即經(jīng)理的大聲吼叫：“踹走這個人！”。并且認為這種類型的經(jīng)理是對的。認為最有效地最不客氣的讓人做事的方式就是怒罵或直接踹上去，去做可以被叫做“KITA”的行為。有很多種KITA的形式，下面是部分方式：消極身體的KITA。這是一種不夸張的學(xué)術(shù)運用，并且經(jīng)常在過去被使用。然而它有三個主要缺點：1.它是不雅的2.它違背了大多數(shù)組織珍惜的珍貴的仁慈形象3.因為它是一種身體攻擊，會直接刺激自主神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)，而這經(jīng)常導(dǎo)致消極反饋-那個員工會反擊。這些原因?qū)е庐a(chǎn)生了消極的身體KITA一些的禁忌。為發(fā)現(xiàn)心理脆弱性的無限根源和正確管理它的方式，心理學(xué)家們已經(jīng)來拯救那些不被允許使用消極的身體KITA?！八米吡宋业募侔l(fā)”；“我不知道她那樣是想干嘛”；“老板老是盯著我”-這些自我核心的描述引起摩擦刺痛是應(yīng)用了以下方面的結(jié)果： 消極心理的KITA。這個比消極身體KITA有若干優(yōu)勢。首先，這種殘忍是看不見的；這種流血是在內(nèi)部的并且來得較晚。第二，因為它是用禁止的力量來影響高級腦皮質(zhì)中心，減少了身體反沖的可能性。第三，因為一個人能承受的心理上的痛苦是無限的，KITA發(fā)生的方向跟地點的可能性被升高了很多次。第四，實施打擊的那個人能夠在抽身在外，讓系統(tǒng)完成這個骯臟的工作。第五，那些實施者獲得了一些自我滿足感（唯我獨尊），然而他們是厭惡抽血的。最后，如果員工抱怨，他或她常會被控告是偏執(zhí)狂的；沒有明顯的證據(jù)說明是真實的攻擊?，F(xiàn)在，消極KITA會造成什么？如果我從背后踢你（心理的或身體的），誰會被激勵？我會被激勵；你離開！消極的KITA不會導(dǎo)致激勵，但會造成離職。積極的KITA。讓我們來考慮激勵。如果我跟你說，“幫我或公司做這件事，然后我會給你獎勵，一個鼓勵刺激，更高地位，一次提升，所有存在的工業(yè)組織的金幣獎勵，”我是在激勵你嗎？我得到管理人員的千篇一律的回答是，“是的，這是激勵。”我有一只一歲的剛毛狼犬。當他還是一只小動物我想讓它走動，我在它背后踢它然后它走了?，F(xiàn)在我已經(jīng)完成了它的服從培訓(xùn)，我舉著一塊狗糧當我想讓它走的時候。在這個例子中，誰被激勵了？-我還是狗呢？狗想要吃餅干，但是我想讓它走的。又一次說明是我被激勵了，而狗是走動的那個。在這個例子里我所做的是正面地運用KITA；我使用了拉力而不是推力。當企業(yè)想使用這種積極的KITA，必須有數(shù)不盡的并且是各種各樣的狗狗餅干（人的話是用果凍豆子）在員工面前揮動以使他們?nèi)ヌ咭稽c。為什么管理方面的讀者很快就看出來消極KITA不是激勵，當他們幾乎是普遍判斷積極的KITA是激勵。那是因為消極KITA是搶奪式的，是積極KITA是誘惑性的。但是被誘惑比搶奪式糟糕很多；后者是一個不幸的事件，但前者意味著你是敗在你自己的一部分上。這就是為什么積極的KITA這么受歡迎：它是一個傳統(tǒng)；它是美國人的方式。組織不是不得不踢你，是你自己踢你自己的。激勵的神話為什么KITA不是激勵？如果我踢我的小狗（從前部或后部），它會動。當我還想讓它再走，我必須做什么？我必須再踢它。類似的，我能給一個人的電池充電然后再給它充一次，又一次充電。但是只有當一個人有自己的發(fā)生機制我們能夠討論激勵。個體之后就不需要外部激勵。他自己想去做。記住了這點，我們能回顧一些積極的KITA人事案例，這些是嘗試去進行激勵的案例。1.縮短工作時間。這代表了一種令人驚訝的方式去激勵人們工作-讓他們離開工作！我們已經(jīng)在過去的五十到六十年（正式或非正式）縮減了工作時間，直到我們走向“六天半一星期”模式。這個方法的有趣變化是閑暇時間的娛樂項目的產(chǎn)生。這里的這里似乎是一起玩的人一起工作。事實是受激勵的人追求更多小時工作而不是更少工作時間。2.螺旋形上升的工資。這些激勵人們了嗎？是的，為了追求下次漲薪水。一些保守人士還會說一些好的壓制能激勵員工。他們覺得如果漲薪水不起作用，或許扣薪水可以起作用。3.附加福利。工業(yè)有過時的以福利為核心的福利規(guī)定來執(zhí)行從搖籃到墳?zāi)沟脑Ｎ抑赖囊粋€公司有一個非正式的“附加福利月俱樂部”實施了一段時間。這個國家的附加福利花費幾乎達到了工作水平的百分之二十五，并且我們還在呼吁激勵。人們花更少的時間賺更多的錢，且比以前穩(wěn)定得多，而且這種趨勢是不可逆轉(zhuǎn)的。這些福利不再是獎勵；他們是權(quán)利。一周六天工作不人道，一天是小時工作是剝削，甚至醫(yī)療報銷是一個基本的禮貌，股權(quán)拯救了美國人的動機。除非賭注不斷地提高，否則員工的心理反應(yīng)是公司在倒退。當企業(yè)開始意識到員工的經(jīng)濟神經(jīng)跟懶神經(jīng)都是無法滿足的，它開始聽從行為主義的科學(xué)家的想法，這是出于人類的傳統(tǒng)而不是科學(xué)實驗的理論，他們批評管理者不知道如何管理人們。下一個KITA就順理成章地出現(xiàn)了。4.人際關(guān)系訓(xùn)練。經(jīng)過了三十多年的教育，許多通過心理學(xué)的方式去掌控人的例子已經(jīng)導(dǎo)致了昂貴的人際關(guān)系培訓(xùn)項目的出現(xiàn)，結(jié)果還是存在一個相同的問題那就是：“你怎么激勵員工？”這里出現(xiàn)了很大的提升，三十年前很有必要去要求員工：“不要隨地吐痰！”現(xiàn)在同樣的警告在員工感受到上司是要求心理上的正確心態(tài)之前需要三“請”。人際關(guān)系訓(xùn)練沒能激勵員工的失敗經(jīng)驗說明高層人員或者經(jīng)理在處理人際禮貌時也沒有在心態(tài)上正確對待自己。所以一種前衛(wèi)的人際關(guān)系KITA形式，知覺訓(xùn)練被提出了。5.知覺訓(xùn)練。你是真的真正了解你自己嗎？你是否真的相信別人？你是否真的愿意合作？知覺訓(xùn)練的失敗現(xiàn)在被解釋了，因為那些投機取巧的技術(shù)開拓者，作為五次實施恰當?shù)闹X訓(xùn)練課程的一個失敗。意識到從舒適度、經(jīng)濟上，人際間的KITA只有暫時的收益，人事經(jīng)理總結(jié)到錯誤不在于他們正在做的事，而是由于員工錯在不知道欣賞他們正在做的事。這個開啟了交流的領(lǐng)域，一個全新的領(lǐng)域來科學(xué)地裁決KITA。6.交流。交流專家被邀請去加入員工管理培訓(xùn)計劃去幫助員工明白管理在為他們做什么。房屋機構(gòu)，簡短講習(xí)會，高層交流重要性的建議，以及所有的廣告的一直激增到今天甚至有一個國際行業(yè)編者委員會。但仍然沒有起到激勵效果，并且有明確的想法產(chǎn)生認為可能管理不是聽員工在說什么。這就導(dǎo)致了下一個KITA的出現(xiàn)。7.雙向交流。這是管理層下令士氣審視，建議計劃，團隊參與的計劃模式。那樣后員工跟管理者都交流并比以前更加會聽取相互的意見，但是還沒有大大提高激勵的效果。行為主義的專家就開始重新審視他們的概念和數(shù)據(jù)，且將人際關(guān)系更進一步深入研究。在心理學(xué)家寫的所謂的高要求中開始透露出一點真像。所以人們說想去實現(xiàn)自我。不幸的是， “實現(xiàn)”心理學(xué)家的與人類關(guān)系學(xué)家又混合到一起，一個新的KITA出現(xiàn)了。8.參與工作。盡管并不是出于理論的目的，參與工作經(jīng)常使用“給他們一張大圖”的方式。舉個例子說，如果一個組裝線上的人用扭力