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1、 本科畢業(yè)論文 外文文獻(xiàn)及譯文 文獻(xiàn)、資料題目：New-Product Pricing Strategies 文獻(xiàn)、資料來(lái)源：著作 文獻(xiàn)、資料發(fā)表（出版）日期：2000.4 外文文獻(xiàn)： Principles of Marketing 1.New-Product Pricing Strategies Pricing strategies usually change as the product passes through its life cycle. The introductory stage is

2、 especially challenging. We can distinguish between pricing a product that imitates existing products and pricing an innovative product that is patent protected. A company that plans to develop an imitative new product faces a product-positioning problem. It must decide where to position the produc

3、t versus positioning strategies. First， the company might decide to use a premium pricing competing products in terms of quality and price. Figure 17.1 shows four possible strategy - producing a high-quality product and charging the highest price. At the other extreme， it might decide on an economy

4、pricing strategy - producing a lower-quality product， but charging a low price. These strategies can coexist in the same market as long as the market consists of at least two groups of buyers， those who seek quality and those who seek price. Thus， Tag-Heuer offers very high-quality sports watches at

5、 high prices， whereas Casio offers digital watches at almost throwaway prices. Companies bringing out an innovative， patent-protected product face the challenge of setting prices for the first time. They can choose between two strat-egies： market-shimming pricing and market-penetration pricing. (1

6、) Market-Skimming Pricing Many companies that invent new products initially set high prices to skimrevenues layer by layer from the market. Intel is a prime user of this strategy， called market-skimming pricing. When Intel first introduces a new computer chip， it charges the highest price it can，gi

7、ven， the benefits of the new chip over competing chips. It sets a price that makes it just worthwhile for some segments of the market to adopt computers containing the chip. As initial sales slow down and as competitors threaten to introduce similar chips， Intel lowers the price to draw in the nest

8、price-sensitive layer of customers. (2) Market-Penetration Pricing Rather than setting a high initial price to skim off small but profitable market segments， some companies use market-penetration pricing. They set a low initial price in order to penetrate the market quickly and deeply - to attract

9、 a large number of buyers quickly and win a large market share. The high sales volume results in falling costs， allowing the company to cut its price even further. For example， Dell and Dan used penetration pricing to sell high-quality computer products through lower-cost mail-order channels. Their

10、sales soared when IBM， Compaq， Apple and other competitors selling through retail stores could not match their prices. The Bank of Scotland and Winterthur of Switzerland used their Direct Line， Privilege and Churchill subsidiaries to grab profits and share in the motor insurance market by selling di

11、rect to consumers at market-penetrating prices. The high volume results in lower costs that， in turn， allow the discounters to keep prices low. Several conditions favour setting a low price. First， the market must be highly price sensitive， so that a low price produces more market growth. Second， p

12、roduction and distribution costs must fall as sales volume increases. Finally， the low price must help keep out the competition - otherwise the price advantage may he only temporary. For example， Dell faced difficult times when IBM and Compaq established their own direct distribution channels. 2.Pr

13、oduct-Mix Pricing Strategies The strategy for setting a products price often has to he changed when the product is part of a product mix. In this case， the firm looks for a set of prices that maximizes the profits on the total product mix. Pricing is difficult because the various products have rela

14、ted demand and costs， and face different degrees of competition. (1) Product Line Pricing Companies usually develop product lines rather than single products. For example， Merlonis sells Indesit， Ariston and Seholte with price and –status ascending in that order. There arc full ranges of Indesit

15、to Ariston appliances， from washing machines to freezers， covering the first two price hands， while Scholte sells expensive built-in kitchen equipment. Kodak offers not just one type of film， hut an assortment including regular Kodak film， higher-priced Kodak Royal Gold film for special occasions， a

16、nd a lower-priced， seasonal film called Runtime that competes with store brands. Each of these brands is available in a variety of sizes and film speeds. In product line pricing， management must decidion the price steps to set between the various products in a line. The price steps should take into

17、 account cost differences between the prod-ucts in the line， customer evaluations of their different features and competitors prices. If the price difference between two successive products is small， buyers will usually buy the more advanced product. This will increase company profits if the cost di

18、fference is smaller than the price difference. If the price difference is large， however， customers will generally buy the less advanced products. (2) Optional-Product Pricing Many companies use optional-pro duet pricing - offering to sell optional or acces-sory products along with their main prod

19、uct. For example，a ear buyer may choose to order power windows， cruise control and a radio with a CD player. Pricing these options is a sticky problem. Car companies have to decide which items to include in the base price and which to offer as options. BMWs basic cars come famously under equipped. T

20、ypically the 318i is about DM40，000， but the customer then has to pay extra for a radio (prices vary)， electric windows (DM700)， sun roof (DM! ，800) and security system (DM1，100). The basic model is stripped of so many comforts and conveniences that most buyers reject it. The pay for extras or buy a

21、 better-equipped version. More recently， however， American and European car makers have been forced to follow the example of the Japanese car makers and include in the basic price many useful items previously sold only as options. The advertised price now often represents a well-equipped car. (3) C

22、ap Live-Pro duct Pricing Companies that make products that must be used along with a main product are using captive-product pricing. Examples of captive products are razors， camera film and computer software. Producers of the main products (razors， cameras and computers) often price them low and se

23、t high mark-ups on the supplies. Thus Polaroid prices its cameras low because it makes its money on the film it sells. And Gillette sells low-priced razors， but makes money on the replacement blades. Camera makers that do not sell film have to price their main products higher inorder to make the sam

24、e overall profit. (4) By-Product Pricing In producing proeessed meats， petroleum products， chemicals and other products， there are often by-products. If the by-products have no value and if getting rid of them is costly， this will affect the pricing of the main product. Using by-product pricing， t

25、he manufacturer will seek a market for these by-products and should accept any price that covers more than the cost of storing and delivering； them. This practice allows the seller to reduce the main products price to make It more competitive. By-products can even turn out to be profitable. For exam

26、ple， many lumber mills have begun to sell bark chips and sawdust profitably as decorative mulch for home and commercial landscaping. Sometimes companies dont realize how valuable their by-products are. For example， most Zoos dont realize that one of their by-products – their occupants manure - can

27、be an excellent source of additional revenue. But the Zoo-Doo Compost Company has helped many zoos understand the costs and opportunities involved with these by-products. Zoo-Dolicenses its name to zoos and receives royalties on manure sales. Manyzoos dont even know how much manure they are producin

28、g or the cost of disposing of it， explains president and founder Fierce Ledbetter. Zoos are often so pleased with any savings they can find on disposal that they dont think to move into active by-product sales. However， sales of the fragrant by-product can be substantial. So far novelty sales have b

29、een the largest， with tiny containers of Zoo Doo (and even Love， Love Me Doovalentines) available in 160 zoo stores and 700 additional retail outlets. For the long-term market， Zoo-Doo looks to organic gardeners who buy15 to 70 pounds of manure at a time. Zoo Doo is already planning a Dung of the Mo

30、nth club to reach these lucrative by-product markets. (5) Product-Bundle Pricing Using， product-bundle pricing， sellers often combine several of their products and offer the bundle at a reduced price. Thus theatres and sports teams sell seas on tickets at less than the cost of single tickets； hote

31、ls sell specially priced packages that include room， meals and entertainment； computer makers in elude attractives of ware packages with their personal computers. Price bundling can promote the sales of products that consumers might not otherwise buy， but the combined price must be low enough to get

32、 them to buy the bundle. " In other cases， product-bundle pricing is used to sell more than the customer really wants. Obtaining a ticket to an exclusive sports event is difficult， but World Cup football finals tickets are available to people willing to buy them bundled with a supersonic Concorde f

33、light. 3. Price-Adjustment Strategies Companies usually adjust their basic prices to account for various customer differences and changing situations. Seven price-adjustment strategics： discount and allowance pricing， segmented pricing， psychological pricing， promotional pricing， -value pricing， g

34、eographical pricing and international pricing. (1) Discount and Allowance Pricing Most companies adjust their basic price to reward customers for certain responses， such as early payment of bills， volume purchases and off-season buying. These price adjustments - called discounts and allowances - c

35、an take many forms. A cash discount is a price reduction to buyers who pay their bills promptly， Atypical example is 2/10， net 30. which means that although payment is due within 30 days， the buyer can deduct 2 per cent if the hill is paid within 10 days. The discount must be granted to all buyers

36、meeting these terms. Such discounts are customary in many industries and help to improve the sellers cash situation and reduce bad debts and credit-collection costs. A quantity discount is a price reduction to buyers who buy large volumes. Atypical example might be K10 per unit for less than 100 un

37、its， $9 per unit for 100or more units. Wine merchants often give twelve for the price of eleven andMakro， the trade warehouse， automatically gives discounts on any product bought in bulk. Discounts provide an incentive to the customer to buy more from one given seller， rather than from many differen

38、t sources. A quantity premium is sometimes charged to people buying higher volumes. In Japan it often costs more per item to buy a twelve-pack of beer or sushi than smaller quantities because the larger packs are more gift able and therefore less price sensitive. Quantity surcharges can also oecur

39、when die product being bought is in short supply or in sets - for example， several seats together at a sold-out rock concert or sports event - and some small restaurants charge a premium to large groups. Similarly， in buying antiques， it costs more to buy six complete place settings of cutlery than

40、a single item. In this case the price will continue toincrease with volume， eight place settings costing more than six， and twelve place settings costing more than eight. Quantity premiums are more common than people imagine， and that is why they work. Consumers expect prices to deerease with volume

41、 and so do not check unit prices. This allows retailers to slip in high-margin items. Quantity surcharge increases with the variety and complexity of pack sizes and， in some markets， over 30 per cent of ranges include some quantity surcharging. A trade discount (also called a functional discount) i

42、s offered by the seller to trade channel members that perform certain functions， such as selling， storing and record keeping. Manufacturers may offer different functional discounts to different trade channels because of the varying services they perform， but manufacturers must offer the same functio

43、nal discounts within each trade channel. A seasonal discount is a price discount to buyers who buy merchandise orservices out of season. For example， lawn and garden equipment manufacturers will offer seasonal discounts to retailers during the autumn and winter to encourage early ordering in antici

44、pation of the heavy spring and summer selling seasons. Hotels,motels and airlines will offer seasonal discounts in their slower selling periods. Seasonal discounts allow the seller to keep production steady during the entire year. Allowances are another type of reduction from the list price. For ex

45、ample， trade-in allowances are price reductions given for turning in an old item when buying a new one. Trade-in allowances are most common in the car industry， but are also given for othe rdurable goods. Promotional allowances are payments or price reductions to reward dealers for participating in

46、advertising and sales-support programmes. (2) Segmented Pricing Companies will often adjust their basic prices to allow for differences in customers， products and locations. In segmented pricing， the company sells aproduct or service at two or more prices， even though the difference in prices is n

47、ot based on differences in costs. Segmented pricing takes several forms： * Customer-segment pricing. Different customers pay different prices for thesame product or service. Museums， for example， will charge a lower admission for young people， the unwaged， students and senior citizens. Inmany parts

48、 of the world， tourists pay more to see museums， shows andnational monuments than do locals. * Product-form pricing. Different versions of the product are priced differently， but not according to differences in their costs. For instance， the Dutch company Skil prices its 6434H electric drill at DF1

49、200， which isDF1125 more than the price .of its 6400H. The 6434H is more powerful and has more features， yet this extra power and features cost only a few more guilders to build in. * Location pricing. Different locations are priced differently， even though the cost of offering each location is the

50、 same. For instance， theatres vary theirs cat prices because of audience preferences for certain locations and EU universities charge higher tuition fees for non-EU students. * Time pricing. Prices vary by the season， the month， the day and even the hour. Public utilities vary their prices to comme

51、rcial users by time of day and weekend versus weekday. The telephone company offers lower off-peak charges and resorts give seasonal discounts. For segmented pricing to be an effective strategy， certain conditions must exist. The market must be segmen table and the segments must show different d

52、egrees of demand. Members of the segment paying the lower price should not beably to turn around and resell the product to the segment paying the higher price. Competitors should not be able to undersell the firm in the segment being charged the higher price. Nor should the costs of segmenting and

53、watching the market exceed the extra revenue obtained from the price difference. The practice should not lead to customer resentment and ill will. Finally， the segmented pricing must he legal. (3) Promotional Pricing With promotional pricing， companies will temporarily price their products below l

54、ist price and sometimes even below cost. Promotional pricing takes several forms. Supermarkets and department stores will price a few products as toss leaders to attract customers to the store in the hope that they will buy other items at normal mark-ups. Kellers will also use special-event pricing

55、in certain seasons to draw in more customers. Thus linens are promotionally priced every January to attract weary Christmas shoppers back into the stores. Manufacturers will sometimes offer cash rebates to consumers who buy the product from dealers within a specified time； the manufacturer sends the

56、 rebate directly to the customer. Rebates have recently been popular with car makers and producers of durable goods and small appliances. Some manufacturers offer low-interest financing， longer warranties or free maintenance to reduce the consumers price. This practice has recently become a favourit

57、e of the car industry. Or， the seller may simply offer discounts from normal prices to increase sales and reduce inventories. Pricing strategies and tactics form an important element of a companys marketing mix. In setting prices， companies must carefully consider a great many internal and external

58、 factors before choosing a price that will give them the greatest competitive advantage in selected target markets. However， companies are not usually free to charge whatever prices they wish. Several laws restrict pricing practices and a number of ethical considerations affect pricing decisions. Pr

59、icing strategies and tactics also depend upon the way that we pay for things. Increasingly what we spend does not depend on how much money we have on us or how much we earned that week. These days our money is rarely something we sec or feel； it is the electronic transmission of data between files.

60、Also， as currency is becoming an increasingly small part of our lives， barter is coming back in international and interpersonal dealing. Marketing Highlight 17，3 tells more about how money is changing. 中文譯文： 市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷原理 第一節(jié) 新產(chǎn)品定價(jià)策略 定價(jià)策略在產(chǎn)品生命周期的不同階段常常要改變，尤其是產(chǎn)品的新生期極具挑戰(zhàn)性。讓我們來(lái)比較兩種產(chǎn)品的定價(jià)，一種是模仿現(xiàn)有產(chǎn)品的新產(chǎn)品，另一種

61、是有專利保護(hù)的創(chuàng)新產(chǎn)品。公司如果模仿市場(chǎng)上已經(jīng)有的產(chǎn)品，就面臨產(chǎn)品定位問(wèn)題，它必須決定如何給產(chǎn)品定位，以便在價(jià)格和質(zhì)量上與對(duì)手競(jìng)爭(zhēng)。首先，公司可能采取高附加值定價(jià)策略，生產(chǎn)高質(zhì)量的產(chǎn)品，定很高的價(jià)格。在另一個(gè)極端，它可能使用經(jīng)濟(jì)定價(jià)策略，生產(chǎn)質(zhì)量低一些的產(chǎn)品，定價(jià)較低。只要市場(chǎng)上有兩個(gè)購(gòu)買者群體，一個(gè)追求質(zhì)量，一個(gè)追求價(jià)格， 這些策略就可以同時(shí)在市場(chǎng)上存在。勞力士公司(Rolex)生產(chǎn)質(zhì)量非常高的手表，價(jià)格也非常高， 泰麥克斯公司(Timex)生產(chǎn)質(zhì)量低一些的產(chǎn)品， 價(jià)格也比較容易被接受。 推出有專利保護(hù)的創(chuàng)新產(chǎn)品的公司，面對(duì)第一次為產(chǎn)品定價(jià)的挑戰(zhàn)， 他們可以在兩種策略中做出選擇：撇脂式定價(jià)

62、法或滲透式定價(jià)法。 一、撇脂式定價(jià)法 許多公司發(fā)明了新產(chǎn)品，開(kāi)始時(shí)都使用撇脂式定價(jià)法，以便一步步地在市場(chǎng)上爭(zhēng)取收入。英特爾公司(Intel)就使用這種撇脂式定價(jià)策略(Market-Skimming Pricing)。當(dāng)英特爾公司推出一種新的計(jì)算機(jī)芯片時(shí)，它使用最高的價(jià)格， 幫助新的芯片壓倒市場(chǎng)上原有的芯片。它制定的價(jià)格瞄準(zhǔn)一些子市場(chǎng)，這些子市場(chǎng)上的計(jì)算機(jī)需要這種新的芯片。當(dāng)新產(chǎn)品銷售的速度降下來(lái)時(shí)， 或當(dāng)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)者即將推出類似芯片時(shí)， 英特爾公司降低價(jià)格， 吸引市場(chǎng)上那些對(duì)價(jià)格十分敏感的消費(fèi)者。 撇脂式定價(jià)法只在一定條件下有意義。首先，產(chǎn)品的質(zhì)量和形象必須與產(chǎn)品價(jià)格一致，有相當(dāng)多的顧客接受這

63、種價(jià)格下的產(chǎn)品。其次，生產(chǎn)較少量的產(chǎn)品的成本不能太高， 以致抵消定高價(jià)所帶來(lái)的好處。最后，競(jìng)爭(zhēng)者沒(méi)有可能很容易地進(jìn)入市場(chǎng)， 以同樣價(jià)格參加競(jìng)爭(zhēng)。 二、滲透式定價(jià)法 一些公司使用滲透式定價(jià)法(Market-Penetrating Pricing)。不像撇脂式定價(jià)法那樣制定高價(jià)格，瞄準(zhǔn)能產(chǎn)生高額利潤(rùn)的小型子市場(chǎng)，使用滲透式定價(jià)法，人們制定很低的價(jià)格，迅速滲透進(jìn)入市場(chǎng)，迅速吸引消費(fèi)者，快速占有很大的市場(chǎng)份額。銷售量大可以減少成本，公司有可能進(jìn)一步降低價(jià)格。例如，德?tīng)柟?Dell)和蓋特衛(wèi)公司(Gateway)使用滲透式定價(jià)方法，為高質(zhì)量計(jì)算機(jī)產(chǎn)品定價(jià)， 再通過(guò)低成本郵寄渠道分銷。當(dāng)IBM公司

64、、康柏公司、蘋果公司和其他競(jìng)爭(zhēng)者通過(guò)零售商店銷售計(jì)算機(jī)， 不能達(dá)到很低的價(jià)格時(shí)， 它們兩家的銷售上去了。荷姆公司(Home Depot)、沃爾瑪公司(War-Mart)和其他折扣零售商店也使用滲透式定價(jià)法，定低價(jià)，以便增加銷售量。大的銷售量反過(guò)來(lái)又保證了價(jià)格的進(jìn)一步降低。 有幾種條件對(duì)制定低價(jià)格有利。首先，市場(chǎng)必須對(duì)價(jià)格十分敏感， 能在低價(jià)格下迅速增長(zhǎng)。第二，生產(chǎn)和分銷成本必須隨銷售量的增加而下降。最后，低價(jià)格要能阻止競(jìng)爭(zhēng)， 否則的話，低價(jià)格可能只是暫時(shí)的。例如， 當(dāng)IBM公司和康柏公司建立了自己的分銷渠道后，德?tīng)柟竞蜕w特衛(wèi)公司的處境就很困難了。 第二節(jié) 產(chǎn)品組合定價(jià)策略 當(dāng)產(chǎn)品是產(chǎn)

65、品組合的一部分時(shí)，產(chǎn)品的定價(jià)策略就需要改變。在這種情況下，企業(yè)尋求一組價(jià)格，能夠使整個(gè)產(chǎn)品組合的利潤(rùn)最大。由于各個(gè)產(chǎn)品的需求成本以及面對(duì)的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)程度各不相同，所以定價(jià)的難度較大。 一、產(chǎn)品系列定價(jià) 公司通常會(huì)開(kāi)發(fā)一個(gè)產(chǎn)品系列，而不是一個(gè)單一產(chǎn)品。例如， 斯耐波公司(Snapper)制造許多不同的割草機(jī)，從價(jià)格為 259. 95 美元、299.95 美元、399.95 美元簡(jiǎn)單的手推式， 到1 000 美元左右可以騎上去開(kāi)的那種都有。系列中每個(gè)成功的割草機(jī)都有特點(diǎn)?？逻_(dá)公司生產(chǎn)不止一種膠卷，而是一個(gè)系列，包括普通柯達(dá)牌膠卷，特殊情況使用的 Kodak RoyalGold 牌膠卷，和低價(jià)格的稱作

66、“快樂(lè)時(shí)光牌(Funtime)”的季節(jié)性膠卷為的是和經(jīng)銷商品牌膠卷競(jìng)爭(zhēng)?？逻_(dá)公司的這些品牌產(chǎn)品的規(guī)格和感光速度都不一樣。在產(chǎn)品系列定價(jià) (Product Line Pricing)的過(guò)程中，管理部門必須決定系列中不同產(chǎn)品的價(jià)格差別。 價(jià)格差別要考慮系列產(chǎn)品中的成本差別、消費(fèi)者對(duì)不同產(chǎn)品特色的看法以及競(jìng)爭(zhēng)者的價(jià)格。如果兩個(gè)成功產(chǎn)品的價(jià)格差別小，購(gòu)買者通常會(huì)買性能先進(jìn)的產(chǎn)品。如果成本差別比價(jià)格差別要小，這種情況下會(huì)增加公司的利潤(rùn)。如果價(jià)格差別大， 消費(fèi)者一般會(huì)買不怎么先進(jìn)的產(chǎn)品。 二、備選產(chǎn)品的定價(jià) 許多公司銷售與主體產(chǎn)品配套的備選產(chǎn)品或附加產(chǎn)品時(shí)，使用備選產(chǎn)品的定價(jià)方法 (Optional-Product Pricing)。例如，一位汽車購(gòu)買者可能選擇電動(dòng)窗、油門鎖定鍵、帶激光機(jī)的音響等。為這些備選產(chǎn)品定價(jià)是很棘手的問(wèn)題，汽車公司必須決定哪些產(chǎn)品包括在汽車基礎(chǔ)價(jià)格里，哪些作為備選產(chǎn)品。近些年來(lái)通用汽車公司一般的價(jià)格策略是對(duì)每輛 1.2萬(wàn)美元的基本車型做廣告，吸引大家到展覽中心，展室大部分空間都擺著安裝了各種備選產(chǎn)品的汽車