自考現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)復(fù)習(xí)講義一、?？碱}型1.填空2單項(xiàng)選擇3判斷正誤4解釋詞語并舉例說明對(duì)名詞解釋并舉一兩個(gè)例子進(jìn)行說明5回答問題做題要求：用英文進(jìn)行答題。二、各章節(jié)學(xué)習(xí)要點(diǎn)Chapter 1 Introduction （緒論）I. What is lin guistics?1.1 Defi nition（語言學(xué)的定義）P.1Lin guistics is gen erally defi ned as the scientific study of languageLinguistics studies not any particular Ianguage, e.g., English, Chinese, Arabic, and Latin, but in Ianguage in gen eral.1.2 The Scope of lin guistics（語言學(xué)的研究范疇）P.2 4The study of Ianguage as a whole is often called general linguistics（普誦語言學(xué) ）.This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those bran ches of study which relate lin guistics to the research of other areas.Main branches of linguistics 語言學(xué)的主要分支：1） phonetics （語音學(xué)）2）phonology （音系學(xué)） 3）morphology （形態(tài)學(xué)）4）syntax （句法學(xué)） 5）semantics （語義學(xué)）6）pragmatics （語用學(xué)）The study of all these aspects of Ian guage forms the core of lin guistics.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applie3d to the solution of such practical problems as therecovery of speech ability. The study of such applicati ons is gen erally known as applied linguistics.Macrolinguistics 宏觀語言學(xué)：1） Psycholingusitcs 心理語言學(xué)）；2） Sociolinguistics 社會(huì)語言 學(xué)）；3） Anthropological linguistics （人類語言學(xué)）；4） Computational linguistics （計(jì)算語言學(xué)）1.3 Some importa nt dist inctions in lin guisticsP.4 71.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive（規(guī)定性和描述性）Examples: Don 'say X.People don 'say X.Moder n lin guistics, i.e., li nguistic study carried out i n this cen tury ismostly descriptive.1.3.2 Synchron ic vs. diachro nic（共時(shí)性和歷時(shí)性）In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.1.3.3 Speech and writi ng（口頭語和書面語）Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken Ianguage as primary , not the written.1.3.4 Lan gue and parole（語言和言語）The distinction between Iangue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th cen tury.1.3.5 Compete nee and performa nee（語言能力和語言運(yùn)用）Similar to Saussure ' distinction between Iangue and parole is the distinction betweencompetenceand performance , which was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950 '.While Saussure'distinction and Chomsky ' are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociologicalview of Ian guage and his no tio n of Ian gue is a matter of social conven ti ons, and Chomsky looks at Ian guage from a psychological point of view and to him compete nee is a property of the mind of each in dividual.2. What is Ian guage?2.1 Defin iti ons of Ian guagep.9Lan guage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for huma n com mun icatio n.（ 語言是人類在交際 中使用的一套任意的聲音符號(hào)系統(tǒng)。）Language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal com muni cati on system.2.2 Desig n featuresp.11 14Design features refer to the defining properties of human Ianguage that distinguish it from any animal system of com muni cati onA framework was proposed by the American linguist Charles Hockett . He specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.1）Arbitrari ness （任意性）Lan guage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical relati on ship betwee n meanings and soun ds. While Ianguage is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary . The arbitrary nature of Ianguage is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for Ianguage to have an unlimited source of expressions.2）Productivity （創(chuàng)造性）Productivity is unique to huma n Ian guage.3）Duality （雙重性）Lan guage is a system, which con sists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of soun ds, which is meanin gless.4）Displaceme nt（移位性）Lan guage can be used to refer to things which are prese nt or not prese nt, real or imagi ned matters in the past, present, or future or in far-away places. In contrast, no animal communication possess this feature.5）Cultural transmission （文化傳遞性）While human capacity of Ianguage has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire Ian guage, the details of any Ian guage system are not gen etically tran smitted, but in stead have to be taught and lear ned.Chapter 2 Phonology 音系學(xué)）1. The phonic medium of language （語言的聲音媒介）p.1516Speech and writing are the two media or substances used by natural Ianguages as vehicles for com muni cati on. Of the two media of Ian guage, speech is more basic tha n writ ing. For lin guists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing; their dada for investigation and analysis are mostly draw n from authe ntic, everyday speech.2. Phonetics 語音學(xué)）2.1 What is pho netics? p.1617Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of Ianguage; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world ' Ianguages.articulatory phonetics （發(fā)音語音學(xué) ）；auditory phonetics （聽覺語音學(xué)）；acoustic phonetics （聲 學(xué)語音學(xué)）Of the three branches of phonetics, the Iongest established, and until recently the most highly developed, is articulatory phonetics.2.2 Orga ns of speech （發(fā)音器官）p.17 22The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities: thepharyngeal cavity （咽月空）一the throat, the oral cavity （口月空）the mouth, and the nasal cavity（鼻 腔）the nose.（人類的發(fā)聲器官都被包括在三個(gè)重要的地方或腔道里；咽腔 一即咽喉；口腔 一即嘴； 和鼻腔一即鼻子。）2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds broad and narrow transcriptions （ 語音的正字標(biāo) 音法一寬式標(biāo)音法和嚴(yán)式標(biāo)音法）Two ways to tran scribe speech sounds are now available. One is the tran scripti on with letter-symbols only and the other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics（附加符號(hào)）.The former is called broad transcription . This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks. The latter is called narrow transcription . This is really the transcription required and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.Chapter 3Morphology （形態(tài)學(xué)）Definition （形態(tài)學(xué)的定義）Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology （屈折形態(tài)學(xué)）and lexical or derivational morphology （詞匯或派牛詞匯學(xué)） .The former studies the inflections and the latter the study of word-formation .2.Morpheme （詞素）p.492.1 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful un it of Ian guage（詞素：語言最小的意義單位）Just as a phon eme is the basic un it in the study of pho no logy, so is a morpheme the basic un it in the study of morphology.The meaning morphemes convey may be of two kin ds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning（詞匯意義和語法意義）.The morphemes such as man”，-“y ”，fbach”，-er ”，dark”，-bn"in manly，teacher， darken convey a lexical meaning，while the morphemes such as -es， -ed， -ing in teaches， played ， raining convey a grammatical meaning.鏈接：Morpheme is the smallest un it of Ian guage in terms of relati on ship betwee n expressi on and content，a un it that cannot be divided into further smaller un its without destro ying or drastically altering the meaning，whether it is lexical or grammatical，e.g.boys-boy+-s in dicates pluralitychecking-check+-i ngdisappo in tme nt-dis-+appo in t+-me nt2.2 Types of morphemes p.50Morphemes are classified into free morphemes and bound morphemes.free morpheme （自 由詞素 ）root（詞根）morphemebound morpheme （粘著詞素）廠 inflectional affix（ 屈折詞綴）prefix （前綴） affix Y（詞綴）derivati onal affix-suffix （后綴）Free morphemes are morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in comb in ati on with other morphemes.Take help, quick, able, warm for example, they can be used freely all by themselves, at the same time, they can also be used in comb in ati on with other morphemes as in helper, quicke n, disable, warm-hearted.Bound morphemes are morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used in depe nden tly but have to be comb ined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word. Bound morphemes in clude two types: roots and affixes.A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word. For example, the root geo-” bears the meaning of the earth ” ;whe n it comb ines with ano ther root -ology ”，mea ning a branch of learning , we get the word geology ” ,which means the study of the earth 'structure. ”Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational .Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. The inflectional affixes in English in clude:-（e）s, in dicat ing plurality of nouns-（e）s, indicating third person singular, present tense-（e）d, in dicati ng past tense for all three pers ons-ing, in dicat ing progressive aspect-er, i ndicat ing comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs-est, indicating superlative degree of adjectives and adverbs-，in dicat ing the possessive case of nounsDerivati onal affixes are added to an existi ng form to create a word. This is a very common way tocreate new words in English. Such a way of word-formation is called derivation （派生法）and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative （派生詞）.The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem（詞干）.A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself一 e.g.tolerateroot toler- "+affix -ate”quickfree morpheme quick ”+ affix -ly ”careless nessfree morpheme care” + affix -less” + derivative careless" + affix -ness”Accord ing to the its positi on in the new word, affixes are divided into two kin ds:prefixes（前綴）andsuffixes （后綴）.（p.53）Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. Exceptions are the prefixes be-" and en（m）-” Added to adjectives or nouns they turn the words into verbs, e.g. little- belittle, large-enlarge, rich-enrich, body-embodySuffixes are added to the end of stems; they modify the meaning of the origi nal word and in many cases change its part of speech （p.54）2.2.3 Morphological rules p.54In using the morphological rules, we must guard against overgeneralization. Different words may require differe nt affixes to create the same cha nge.A knowledge of the derivational affixes and the morphological rules is very helpful in our study ofEn glish especially for enlarging our vocabulary, but such a kno wledge is not to be overused.3. Compounding 復(fù)合法）p.55Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in En glish. In terms of morphemic an alysis, derivati on can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words, and compo unding the comb in ati on of two or sometimes more tha n two words to create new words.3.1 Types of compo und wordsThere are various ways to classify the compo und words. One of them is to look at the parts of speech of the comp onent words. Words of various parts of speech can be comb ined to form compo un ds.3.2 Features of compo undsDespite the various formati ons, all compo unds share the follow ing feature.1.2. Orthographically（從正字法的角度看）A compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separate words.3.3. Syntactically（從句法的角度看）The part of speech of the compo und is gen erally determ ined by the part of speech of the sec ond eleme nt.5.4. Sema ntically（從語義的角度看）The meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum of the meanings of its comp onen ts.7.8. Phonetically（ 從發(fā)音的角度看）The stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.