最新電大企業(yè)信息管理考試小抄一、 名詞解釋（3分，15分）:10年秋的考題：1、信息戰(zhàn)略：作為經(jīng)營戰(zhàn)略的一個環(huán)節(jié)，將具有經(jīng)濟價值的信息、信息基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施和人的因素這三個信息資源的要素有機的結(jié)合在一起，并加以充分利用的計劃。它是信息管理的各項具體工作的基本出發(fā)點。2、新經(jīng)濟：是建立在信息技術(shù)革命和經(jīng)濟全球化基礎(chǔ)上的經(jīng)濟。3、系統(tǒng)：是由若干相互聯(lián)系，相互制約的元素結(jié)合在一起，并形成具有特定功能的有機整體。這種有機整體有三層含義：這些元素是為了達到某個或某些共同的目標而結(jié)合的；這種結(jié)合要遵守某些規(guī)則；這種結(jié)合意味著這些元素之間有較強的相互依存和相互作用的關(guān)系，往往不可輕易地分割為獨立單元而存在。4、邏輯設(shè)計：指在邏輯上確定信息系統(tǒng)的功能，解決信息系統(tǒng)能“做什么”的問題，為下一階段的系統(tǒng)設(shè)計提供依據(jù)。5、計算機黑客：是人們對那些利用所掌握的技術(shù)未經(jīng)授權(quán)而進入一個計算機信息網(wǎng)，以獲取個人利益、故意搗亂或?qū)で蟠碳槟康牡娜说目偡Q。管理信息系統(tǒng)：是運用系統(tǒng)理論和方法，以電子計算機和現(xiàn)代通訊技術(shù)為信息處理手段和傳輸工具，能為企業(yè)管理決策提供信息服務(wù)的人機系統(tǒng)。CIO：是負責制訂企業(yè)信息政策和標準、對于企業(yè)的信息資源進行全面規(guī)劃和管理的高級管理人員。CIO由副總裁級的管理人員擔任。專家系統(tǒng)：一個具有大量專門知識與經(jīng)驗的計算機系統(tǒng)，作為人工智能的一種技術(shù)，把某一領(lǐng)域內(nèi)的專家們的知識提煉出來，建成一個知識庫，以解決該領(lǐng)域的有關(guān)問題和決策。專家系統(tǒng)通過知識庫，利用啟發(fā)式算法，經(jīng)驗規(guī)則和推理方法解決難以尋找某些規(guī)律或定量描述的困難問題。決策支持系統(tǒng)：是以管理學(xué)、運籌學(xué)、控制論和行為科學(xué)為基礎(chǔ)，以計算機和仿真技術(shù)為手段，輔助決策者解決半結(jié)構(gòu)化或非結(jié)構(gòu)化決策問題的人機交互信息系統(tǒng)。決策支持系統(tǒng)以提高決策效益為目標，對決策者起到支持和輔助作用，但不能代替決策者決策。企業(yè)信息化：指企業(yè)通過信息技術(shù)、信息系統(tǒng)的應(yīng)用和信息資源的開發(fā)利用而服務(wù)于企業(yè)的戰(zhàn)略發(fā)展、經(jīng)營活動及企業(yè)全方位變革和發(fā)展，不斷提高生產(chǎn)、經(jīng)營、管理、決策的效率和水平，提高企業(yè)經(jīng)濟效益和企業(yè)競爭力的過程。電子商務(wù)：是各參與者之間以電子方式而不是以物理交換或直接物理接觸方式完成的業(yè)務(wù)交易。信息產(chǎn)業(yè)：是指直接與應(yīng)用信息技術(shù)生產(chǎn)信息產(chǎn)品、制造信息設(shè)備，進行信息的采集、存儲、加工、傳遞和開發(fā)利用信息產(chǎn)品等服務(wù)活動相關(guān)產(chǎn)業(yè)部門集合。生命周期法：指在進行系統(tǒng)分析和設(shè)計時，自上而下、由全局出發(fā)全面規(guī)劃分析，然后一步步設(shè)計實現(xiàn)的信息系統(tǒng)開發(fā)方法。原型法：指一開始就憑借著系統(tǒng)分析人員對用戶要求的理解，在強有力的軟件環(huán)境支持下，給出一個實實在在的系統(tǒng)模型*或原型），這個原型大致表達了系統(tǒng)分析員當前對用戶的需求了解和他希望系統(tǒng)實現(xiàn)后的形式。然后，系統(tǒng)分析人員和用戶一道對該模型進行評價，根據(jù)評價的結(jié)果，再對模型進行反復(fù)修改，直到用戶滿意為止。二填空題（每空1分，共25分）：10年秋的考題：1、企業(yè)的四種資源是人力、資金、物質(zhì)、信息資源。2、系統(tǒng)按管理職權(quán)級別的不同分成：戰(zhàn)略管理級、戰(zhàn)術(shù)管理級 、作業(yè)處理級。3、對信息技術(shù)的使用分為職能級、公司級、全行業(yè)級三個不同的戰(zhàn)略層次。4、從信息系統(tǒng)作用觀點看，信息系統(tǒng)四個主要部件組成，即信息源 、信息處理部件、信息用戶、信息管理者。5、管理信息系統(tǒng)是運用系統(tǒng)理論和方法，以計算機 和現(xiàn)代通訊技術(shù)為信息處理手段和傳輸工具，能為企業(yè)管理決策提供服務(wù)的人機系統(tǒng)。6、企業(yè)信息系統(tǒng)建設(shè)的4個基本原則是以系統(tǒng)工程的觀點指導(dǎo)信息系統(tǒng)的建設(shè)、與用戶密切配合、“一把手”原則、重視企業(yè)信息系統(tǒng)的戰(zhàn)略規(guī)劃。7、數(shù)據(jù)庫概念的基本目標是減少數(shù)據(jù)冗余、增加數(shù)據(jù)的獨立性。8、一個較成熟的DSS結(jié)構(gòu)是由交互語言系統(tǒng)、問題處理系統(tǒng) 和 知識系統(tǒng)構(gòu)成。*企業(yè)信息系統(tǒng)結(jié)構(gòu)按組成方式不同分為：概念結(jié)構(gòu)、功能結(jié)構(gòu)、軟件結(jié)構(gòu)、硬件結(jié)構(gòu)。*信息系統(tǒng)的生命周期5個組成部分：確定需求、系統(tǒng)開發(fā)、系統(tǒng)安裝配置、系統(tǒng)運行、系統(tǒng)更換。*信息系統(tǒng)外部因素造成的安全隱患有計算機犯罪 、黑客 和計算機病毒。*信息基本特征：客觀性、價值性、等級性、可分離性、可傳輸性、可再生性。*系統(tǒng)特征：整體性、關(guān)聯(lián)性、層次性、目的性、適應(yīng)性。*專家系統(tǒng)的子系統(tǒng)是：知識獲取子、咨詢解釋子、知識庫子和推理子系統(tǒng)。*信息系統(tǒng)內(nèi)部因素產(chǎn)生的安全隱患是 軟件 和數(shù)據(jù)質(zhì)量 問題。*互聯(lián)網(wǎng)給企業(yè)與個人帶來的最大利益就是信息共享。*文檔三大類：系統(tǒng)文檔、用戶文檔、操作文檔。*資源是由信息、信息基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施、人的因素等三種要素組成。*數(shù)據(jù)管理包括：數(shù)據(jù)標準化、數(shù)據(jù)定義、制定代碼體系、數(shù)據(jù)安全保護等內(nèi)容。*.信息系統(tǒng)三個基本行為部件是：輸入、處理、輸出。*系統(tǒng)戰(zhàn)略規(guī)劃主要內(nèi)容：企業(yè)目標的確定、解決目標的方式確定 、企業(yè)信息系統(tǒng)目標的確定、系統(tǒng)方案的確定 。三、選擇題（1分，共10分）：10年秋的考題：1、下面哪個是最高級的信息系統(tǒng)（DSS）2、哪種決策問題最適于用交互式計算機軟件系統(tǒng)來解決（半結(jié)構(gòu)化決策問題）3、耦合指一個系統(tǒng)內(nèi)兩個模塊之間的相互依賴關(guān)系，最理想的耦合形式是（數(shù)據(jù)耦合）4、下面哪些是信息處理器中的內(nèi)容？（A.硬件、B軟件、D系統(tǒng)開發(fā)人員）5、管理信息系統(tǒng)有哪些主要功能？(A數(shù)據(jù)處理B計劃C控制D預(yù)測和決策）6、信息資源管理的基本內(nèi)容包括（ABC）A資源管理的方向和控制B建立企業(yè)信息資源指導(dǎo)委員會 C信息資源的組織結(jié)構(gòu)7、下面哪個不屬于信息系統(tǒng)的應(yīng)用保障措施（D）A輸入輸出授權(quán)認證B程序化例行編輯檢查C總量控制技術(shù)D總體保障8、下面哪個不屬于安全控制措施環(huán)節(jié)？（B）A人B設(shè)備C組織D技術(shù)9、確定系統(tǒng)邏輯優(yōu)先順序的主要標準有哪些？（ABCD）A潛在的利益分析B對企業(yè)的影響C成功的可能性D需求10、繪制系統(tǒng)結(jié)構(gòu)圖時要遵循模塊設(shè)計的原則是（ABC）A低耦合B高聚合 C作用范圍要在控制范圍之中 D獨立性*從信息系統(tǒng)的作用觀點看，哪個不是信息系統(tǒng)主要部件？（B.系統(tǒng)分析員）*信息存儲的載體有（ABC）A書刊B聲像存儲媒體C計算機存儲器*企業(yè)信息系統(tǒng)開發(fā)的四個階段是（ABCD）A系統(tǒng)設(shè)計B系統(tǒng)評價C系統(tǒng)分析D系統(tǒng)實施*作為信息系統(tǒng)評價指標的有（ABCD）A可靠性B經(jīng)濟性C正確性D準時性*信息系統(tǒng)對產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量有那些影響？（ABCD）A、利用信息產(chǎn)品軟件，簡化產(chǎn)品的設(shè)計與生產(chǎn)過程。B、有助于建立高標準的質(zhì)量體系。C、縮短運行周期。D、改進設(shè)計質(zhì)量和精度。*保證軟件質(zhì)量的關(guān)鍵是（B軟件測試）。*B2G是指 (企業(yè)與政府機構(gòu)之間進行的電子商務(wù)活動)*企業(yè)中信息化委員會的工作通常由（CIO）負責。*信息系統(tǒng)維護中最重要的方面是（B軟件維護）*信息系統(tǒng)的成功與失敗最主要因素是非技術(shù)因素，其中關(guān)鍵是（用戶）*存在"開發(fā)費用高，維護困難，系統(tǒng)維護需要開發(fā)單位的長期支持 "等缺陷的企業(yè)IT項目建設(shè)模式是(委托開發(fā))*企業(yè)信息系統(tǒng)的開發(fā)工作小組的開發(fā)人員有（ABC）A管理人員 B程序設(shè)計人員 C系統(tǒng)分析設(shè)計人員*信息技術(shù)獲取競爭優(yōu)勢主要體現(xiàn)在：（無線通信和電子商務(wù)）。*以下幾個特征中哪個不是系統(tǒng)的特征（C 及時性）*結(jié)構(gòu)化生命周期法的缺點主要表現(xiàn)在哪個階段？（需求分析階段）*信息系統(tǒng)對組織的影響作用體現(xiàn)在 (BCD) B.信息系統(tǒng)對組織戰(zhàn)略提供支持c.信息系統(tǒng)對組織變革提供支持 D.信息系統(tǒng)可能成為組織的累贅 *常見的數(shù)據(jù)安全保護對象有（ABD）A數(shù)據(jù)定義B數(shù)據(jù)文件D程序*以下幾個選項哪些是代碼的類型（ABCD）A序碼B塊碼 C分組碼D助記碼*計算機網(wǎng)絡(luò)的特點有（ABCD）A共享性 B可靠性 C分散性D可擴充性*專家系統(tǒng)的核心部分是（AD）。A知識庫子系統(tǒng)B知識獲取子系統(tǒng)C咨詢解釋子系統(tǒng)D推理子系統(tǒng)*下面幾個子系統(tǒng)哪個不是專家系統(tǒng)的子系統(tǒng)？（D）A知識獲取子系統(tǒng)B咨詢解釋子系統(tǒng)C推理子系統(tǒng)D訂貨子系統(tǒng)*按管理對象和管理職能，企業(yè)系統(tǒng)劃分子系統(tǒng)的數(shù)量與（ABC）有關(guān)。A產(chǎn)中品種的多少B產(chǎn)品復(fù)雜程度 C工藝特點*企業(yè)信息系統(tǒng)硬件的邏輯配置方案有（ABCD）A多用戶系統(tǒng)B單機C計算機網(wǎng)絡(luò)D工作站方案*哪個不屬于企業(yè)的特殊環(huán)境？（A）A技術(shù)B產(chǎn)品用戶C競爭對手D供應(yīng)商*在客戶關(guān)系生命周期中 (AB)。 A.考察期是客戶關(guān)系的孕育期 B.形成期表明雙方建立了一定的相互信任和相互依賴關(guān)系c.穩(wěn)定期是客戶關(guān)系快速發(fā)展期 D.退化期是在穩(wěn)定期后的一個時期 三、簡答題（3分，共12分）1、簡述信息資源管理體系。答：信息資源管理體系包括：1、組織結(jié)構(gòu)和人的因素；其中人的因素的主要包括：認識CIO的在企業(yè)中的地位和作用；發(fā)揮信息化委員會的功能；重視人才培養(yǎng)；提高整個企業(yè)的信息利用能力。2、數(shù)據(jù)資源管理；包括：數(shù)據(jù)的標準化、數(shù)據(jù)的定義、制定代碼體系、數(shù)據(jù)的安全保護。3、信息基礎(chǔ)資源的管理和評價；包括：網(wǎng)絡(luò)系統(tǒng)的管理、信息系統(tǒng)和企業(yè)模型；信息系統(tǒng)的評價。4、信息戰(zhàn)略管理；包括：信息戰(zhàn)略、制定信息戰(zhàn)略的體制。2、如何選擇軟硬件？答：應(yīng)針對信息系統(tǒng)所采取的計算機處理方式，來考慮選擇軟硬件。1.硬件選擇：1）實用性，有可擴充性；2）容易開發(fā)容易使用，較強的通信能力以及可靠、可用、可維性好，開放性好；3）信譽好的廠家產(chǎn)品；性能價格比高。避免：1）先購機后作系統(tǒng)分析與設(shè)計；2）一味求先進，把技術(shù)可行性建立在不成熟的時髦機上。 2、軟件選擇：系統(tǒng)軟件分為操作系統(tǒng)和應(yīng)用軟件。其中，操作系統(tǒng)是核心，它的功能和性能在一定程度上決定系統(tǒng)的整體水平。應(yīng)用軟件又分：應(yīng)用軟件包和自編程序。前者經(jīng)過優(yōu)化，編制質(zhì)量和運行質(zhì)量較高的商業(yè)軟件，后者是由企業(yè)自行設(shè)計的軟件。3、簡述信息戰(zhàn)略的主要內(nèi)容。答：1、信息；2、信息基礎(chǔ)；3、人的因素。4、簡述知識與經(jīng)濟的內(nèi)、外部特癥。答：簡答：知識與信息的關(guān)系。答：1、信息是關(guān)于事物運動狀態(tài)和規(guī)律的的消息，是事物存在和變化的情況，是客觀世界中各種事物狀態(tài)和特征的反映。而知識則是人類認識世界的成果或結(jié)晶，它是人類認識活動的產(chǎn)物。沒有人的認識活動，就沒有知識。2、知識是經(jīng)過人加工過的系統(tǒng)化和結(jié)構(gòu)化的信息。人的一生要接受很多信息，那些對人有意義的信息經(jīng)過加工整理，形成系統(tǒng)化的信息結(jié)構(gòu)，加以記憶記錄，就形成了知識。在一定意義上可以這樣說，知識二次信息、人造信息。3、知識是信息，但是信息不一定是知識。作為人類知識，它是人類認識世界的成果或結(jié)晶，其作用就是要幫助人們更好的認識世界、理解世界和改造世 界，就是要消除或減少人們認識的不確定性。所以，知識是一種信息。然而，信息是無處不在的，有物質(zhì)運動就有相應(yīng)的信息。在眾多信息中，被人加工整理的信息 只是一部分，還有許多信息沒有被人加工利用，這些沒有沒人加工的信息就不是知識。簡答：信息的概念和基本特征答：信息是客觀事物的特征通過一定物質(zhì)載體形式的反映，它是加工后的數(shù)據(jù)。信息的基本特征有：客觀性、價值性 、等級性、可分離性、可傳輸性和可再生性 。*簡述：信息化社會的主要特征。答：信息化社會主要包括：1、社會的信息化：指社會系統(tǒng)的信息化；2、工廠自動化：指生產(chǎn)過程自動化；3、辦公自動化：指使用計算機實現(xiàn)辦公過程即管理過程的信息化；4、家庭自動化：指人們生活的信息化。信息化社會的特征：1）信息、知識、智力日益成為社會發(fā)展的決定力量;2）信息技術(shù)、信息產(chǎn)業(yè)、信息經(jīng)濟日益成為科技、經(jīng)濟、社會發(fā)展的主導(dǎo)因素;3）信息勞動者、腦力勞動者、知識分子的作用日益增大;4）信息網(wǎng)絡(luò)成為社會發(fā)展的基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施。簡答：信息系統(tǒng)對企業(yè)組織產(chǎn)生何種影響？答：1）提高企業(yè)競爭優(yōu)勢。2）改進企業(yè)的工作效率和生產(chǎn)銷售方式。3）促進企業(yè)內(nèi)部運行和管理方式的改進。4）促進企業(yè)產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量的提高。5）促進企業(yè)組織的變革。簡答：信息技術(shù)對企業(yè)發(fā)展戰(zhàn)略的意義答：1）企業(yè)間的協(xié)同；企業(yè)間可以利用信息系統(tǒng)成為信息伙伴，甚至可以將他們的信息系統(tǒng)聯(lián)結(jié)起來，共享信息資源。2）使用信息系統(tǒng)還可以取得全行業(yè)的競爭優(yōu)勢；3）網(wǎng)絡(luò)經(jīng)濟；4）企業(yè)的業(yè)務(wù)流程重組。業(yè)務(wù)流程重組旨在消除低效的業(yè)務(wù)與部門，減少無效勞動及提高對市場與客戶的反映速度，使流程的每一步都能獲得價值增值；業(yè)務(wù)流程重組強調(diào)企業(yè)整體全局上的最優(yōu)而不是單個環(huán)節(jié)或作業(yè)任務(wù)的最優(yōu)。簡答：的建立對提高企業(yè)生存能力的作用。答：縮短生產(chǎn)周期、降低生產(chǎn)成本、了解市場信息。*簡答：系統(tǒng)維護的任務(wù)和系統(tǒng)評價的內(nèi)容答： 系統(tǒng)維護任務(wù)的是為了使信息系統(tǒng)適合環(huán)境和各種其他因素的變化，當信息系統(tǒng)發(fā)生故障或局部不理想時，及時進行維修和改進，保證信息系統(tǒng)正常工作并滿足系統(tǒng)用戶對系統(tǒng)的要求。系統(tǒng)評價內(nèi)容：1 .達到目標性能的測定,包括：企業(yè)管理人員對系統(tǒng)效率的評價；輸出報表質(zhì)量如何，企業(yè)管理人員是否滿意；操作是否方便；系統(tǒng)平均無故障時間；數(shù)據(jù)資源的利用率；系統(tǒng)的可擴展性及可維護性。2.系統(tǒng)安全性和可靠性,包括： 系統(tǒng)各個環(huán)節(jié)上的校驗措施是否完善；安全保密措施是否健全；對各種意外情況有無預(yù)防措施與應(yīng)急計劃；數(shù)據(jù)轉(zhuǎn)儲是否符合要求，是否有效。3 .系統(tǒng)管理的科學(xué)性,包括：運行記錄是否完備；系統(tǒng)維護是否有嚴格審批制度；主管人員能否及時了解情況；主管人員是否有技術(shù)手段和組織途徑檢查系統(tǒng)的各部分。4.系統(tǒng)的經(jīng)濟效益與社會效益分析系統(tǒng)的效益分析是評價企業(yè)管理信息系統(tǒng)的重要方面。一般從社會效益和經(jīng)濟效益兩個方面來評價四、論述題（5分，共20分）：1、管理信息系統(tǒng)開發(fā)應(yīng)具備的條件及其作用答：條件：1）企業(yè)主要領(lǐng)導(dǎo)重視，特別是一把手親自參與和領(lǐng)導(dǎo)，也稱一把手原則；2）企業(yè)具有開發(fā)管理信息系統(tǒng)的需求；3）具有一定的科學(xué)管理的基礎(chǔ)；4）有一支高水平的信息系統(tǒng)開發(fā)的專業(yè)隊伍；5）必要的資金支持和資源條件；管理信息系統(tǒng)極大提高了企業(yè)在市場中的生存能力和競爭力，主要作用：1）對市場作出快速反應(yīng)；2）縮短生產(chǎn)周期；3）降低產(chǎn)品成本；4）及時了解市場信息。2、如何分析現(xiàn)行系統(tǒng)。答：企業(yè)信息系統(tǒng)是根據(jù)“基于原系統(tǒng)，高于原系統(tǒng)”的規(guī)則對現(xiàn)行系統(tǒng)的映射。應(yīng)對以下幾方面進行分析：1目標分析：分析各類目標的層次關(guān)系和權(quán)重關(guān)系；分析各項分目標之間的協(xié)調(diào)與沖突關(guān)系；了解系統(tǒng)目標是否與環(huán)境適應(yīng)。2組織機構(gòu)與功能分析：了解組織的總體結(jié)構(gòu)及組織內(nèi)部各部分之間的關(guān)系；分析各組織機構(gòu)的職能是否明確，是否發(fā)揮了應(yīng)有的作用；分析組織機構(gòu)設(shè)置的合理性，找出存在的問題；根據(jù)計算機輔助管理的要求，為企業(yè)決策者提供調(diào)整機構(gòu)設(shè)置的參考意見。3、業(yè)務(wù)流程分析：對現(xiàn)有的業(yè)務(wù)流程進行分析，提出合理的改進方案。4用戶需要分析：了解企業(yè)總體上的信息需求；了解每項應(yīng)用的詳細信息需求。5、薄弱環(huán)節(jié)分析：找出企業(yè)信息收集、處理、傳輸、儲存等方面存在的問題。3、企業(yè)系統(tǒng)規(guī)劃方法的原則和基本研究步驟。 答：BSP法基本原則：1.企業(yè)信息系統(tǒng)必須支持企業(yè)的戰(zhàn)略目標。2.企業(yè)信息系統(tǒng)的總體規(guī)劃應(yīng)當表達出企業(yè)的各個管理層次的要求。3.企業(yè)信息系統(tǒng)應(yīng)向整個企業(yè)提供一致的信息。4.企業(yè)信息系統(tǒng)應(yīng)在組織結(jié)構(gòu)和管理體制改變時保持工作能力。5.企業(yè)信息系統(tǒng)的總體規(guī)劃應(yīng)當由系統(tǒng)結(jié)構(gòu)中的子系統(tǒng)開始實現(xiàn)。BSP研究步驟：1.研究的準備工作；2.研究的開始階段；3.定義企業(yè)過程；4.定義數(shù)據(jù)類；5.分析當前業(yè)務(wù)與系統(tǒng)的關(guān)系；6.定義系統(tǒng)的總體結(jié)構(gòu)；7.確定系統(tǒng)的優(yōu)先順序。4、*試述：信息系統(tǒng)安全保障重要環(huán)節(jié)的內(nèi)容。答：重要環(huán)節(jié)的安全保障內(nèi)容： 1.人員系統(tǒng)：防范內(nèi)部和外部人員利用計算機進行犯罪；對信息系統(tǒng)管理人員進行培訓(xùn)，提高管理水平；減少信息系統(tǒng)用戶錯誤；簡化控制技術(shù)的復(fù)雜性，使人們操作起來。2、組織系統(tǒng)：組織內(nèi)部設(shè)立超級系統(tǒng)管理機構(gòu)，負責信息系統(tǒng)的總體安全保障；把信息系統(tǒng)不同的功能分開進行分工管理，各負其責，減少系統(tǒng)之間的相互干擾。3、.技術(shù)系統(tǒng)：降低硬件失靈的次數(shù)和影響；減少軟件錯誤；注意通信環(huán)節(jié)的安全性；數(shù)據(jù)庫的安全性；應(yīng)用程序存放安全性。五、案例分析（9分，共18分）：1、下列模型展示的內(nèi)容中，信息技術(shù)是如何作用于生產(chǎn)力的？4.對勞動者的影響 5.對勞動工具的影響 6.對勞動對象的影響2、分析下列圖形內(nèi)容，給出信息技術(shù)不同發(fā)展階段的名稱及其主要內(nèi)容。5.計算機時代 6.網(wǎng)絡(luò)時代 7.內(nèi)容時代 8.智能時代請您刪除一下內(nèi)容，O(_)O謝謝！2016年中央電大期末復(fù)習考試小抄大全，電大期末考試必備小抄，電大考試必過小抄Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter released from nerve endings (terminals) in both the peripheral and the central nervous systems. It is synthesized within the nerve terminal from choline, taken up from the tissue fluid into the nerve ending by a specialized transport mechanism. The enzyme necessary for this synthesis is formed in the nerve cell body and passes down the axon to its end, carried in the axoplasmic flow, the slow movement of intracellular substance (cytoplasm). Acetylcholine is stored in the nerve terminal, sequestered in small vesicles awaiting release. When a nerve action potential reaches and invades the nerve terminal, a shower of acetylcholine vesicles is released into the junction (synapse) between the nerve terminal and the effector cell which the nerve activates. This may be another nerve cell or a muscle or gland cell. Thus electrical signals are converted to chemical signals, allowing messages to be passed between nerve cells or between nerve cells and non-nerve cells. This process is termed chemical neurotransmission and was first demonstrated, for nerves to the heart, by the German pharmacologist Loewi in 1921. Chemical transmission involving acetylcholine is known as cholinergic. Acetylcholine acts as a transmitter between motor nerves and the fibres of skeletal muscle at all neuromuscular junctions. At this type of synapse, the nerve terminal is closely apposed to the cell membrane of a muscle fibre at the so-called motor end plate. On release, acetylcholine acts almost instantly, to cause a sequence of chemical and physical events (starting with depolarization of the motor endplate) which cause contraction of the muscle fibre. This is exactly what is required for voluntary muscles in which a rapid response to a command is required. The action of acetylcholine is terminated rapidly, in around 10 milliseconds; an enzyme (cholinesterase) breaks the transmitter down into choline and an acetate ion. The choline is then available for re-uptake into the nerve terminal. These same principles apply to cholinergic transmission at sites other than neuromuscular junctions, although the structure of the synapses differs. In the autonomic nervous system these include nerve-to-nerve synapses at the relay stations (ganglia) in both the sympathetic and the parasympathetic divisions, and the endings of parasympathetic nerve fibres on non-voluntary (smooth) muscle, the heart, and glandular cells; in response to activation of this nerve supply, smooth muscle contracts (notably in the gut), the frequency of heart beat is slowed, and glands secrete. Acetylcholine is also an important transmitter at many sites in the brain at nerve-to-nerve synapses. To understand how acetylcholine brings about a variety of effects in different cells it is necessary to understand membrane receptors. In post-synaptic membranes (those of the cells on which the nerve fibres terminate) there are many different sorts of receptors and some are receptors for acetylcholine. These are protein molecules that react specifically with acetylcholine in a reversible fashion. It is the complex of receptor combined with acetylcholine which brings about a biophysical reaction, resulting in the response from the receptive cell. Two major types of acetylcholine receptors exist in the membranes of cells. The type in skeletal muscle is known as nicotinic; in glands, smooth muscle, and the heart they are muscarinic; and there are some of each type in the brain. These terms are used because nicotine mimics the action of acetylcholine at nicotinic receptors, whereas muscarine, an alkaloid from the mushroom Amanita muscaria, mimics the action of acetylcholine at the muscarinic receptors. Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter produced by neurons referred to as cholinergic neurons. In the peripheral nervous system acetylcholine plays a role in skeletal muscle movement, as well as in the regulation of smooth muscle and cardiac muscle. In the central nervous system acetylcholine is believed to be involved in learning, memory, and mood. Acetylcholine is synthesized from choline and acetyl coenzyme A through the action of the enzyme choline acetyltransferase and becomes packaged into membrane-boundvesicles. After the arrival of a nerve signal at the termination of an axon, the vesicles fuse with the cell membrane, causing the release of acetylcholine into thesynaptic cleft. For the nerve signal to continue, acetylcholine must diffuse to another nearby neuron or muscle cell, where it will bind and activate areceptorprotein. There are two main types of cholinergic receptors, nicotinic and muscarinic. Nicotinic receptors are located at synapses between two neurons and at synapses between neurons and skeletal muscle cells. Upon activation a nicotinic receptor acts as a channel for the movement of ions into and out of the neuron, directly resulting indepolarizationof the neuron. Muscarinic receptors, located at the synapses of nerves with smooth or cardiac muscle, trigger a chain of chemical events referred to as signal transduction. For a cholinergic neuron to receive another impulse, acetylcholine must be released from the receptor to which it has bound. This will only happen if the concentration of acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft is very low. Low synaptic concentrations of acetylcholine can be maintained via a hydrolysis reaction catalyzed by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. This enzyme hydrolyzes acetylcholine into acetic acid and choline. If acetylcholinesterase activity is inhibited, the synaptic concentration of acetylcholine will remain higher than normal. If this inhibition is irreversible, as in the case of exposure to many nerve gases and some pesticides, sweating, bronchial constriction, convulsions, paralysis, and possibly death can occur. Although irreversible inhibition is dangerous, beneficial effects may be derived from transient (reversible) inhibition. Drugs that inhibit acetylcholinesterase in a reversible manner have been shown to improve memory in some people with Alzheimers disease. abstract expressionism, movement of abstract painting that emerged in New York City during the mid-1940s and attained singular prominence in American art in the following decade; also called action painting and the New York school. It was the first important school in American painting to declare its independence from European styles and to influence the development of art abroad. Arshile Gorky first gave impetus to the movement. His paintings, derived at first from the art of Picasso, Mir, and surrealism, became more personally expressive. Jackson Pollocks turbulent yet elegant abstract paintings, which were created by spattering paint on huge canvases placed on the floor, brought abstract expressionism before a hostile public. Willem de Koonings first one-man show in 1948 established him as a highly influential artist. His intensely complicated abstract paintings of the 1940s were followed by images of Woman, grotesque versions of buxom womanhood, which were virtually unparalleled in the sustained savagery of their execution. Painters such as Philip Guston and Franz Kline turned to the abstract late in the 1940s and soon developed strikingly original stylesthe former, lyrical and evocative, the latter, forceful and boldly dramatic. Other important artists involved with the movement included Hans Hofmann, Robert Motherwell, and Mark Rothko; among other major abstract expressionists were such painters as Clyfford Still, Theodoros Stamos, Adolph Gottlieb, Helen Frankenthaler, Lee Krasner, and Esteban Vicente. Abstract expressionism presented a broad range of stylistic diversity within its largely, though not exclusively, nonrepresentational framework. For example, the expressive violence and activity in paintings by de Kooning or Pollock marked the opposite end of the pole from the simple, quiescent images of Mark Rothko. Basic to most abstract expressionist painting were the attention paid to surface qualities, i.e., qualities of brushstroke and texture; the use of huge canvases; the adoption of an approach to space in which all parts of the canvas played an equally vital role in the total work; the harnessing of accidents that occurred during the process of painting; the glorification of the act of painting itself as a means of visual communication; and the attempt to transfer pure emotion directly onto the canvas. The movement had an inestimable influence on the many varieties of work that followed it, especially in the way its proponents used color and materials. Its essential energy transmitted an enduring excitement to the American art scene. Science and technology is quite a broad category, and it covers everything from studying the stars and the planets to studying molecules and viruses. Beginning with the Greeks and Hipparchus, continuing through Ptolemy, Copernicus and Galileo, and today with our work on the International Space Station, man continues to learn more and more about the heavens. From here, we look inward to biochemistry and biology. To truly understand biochemistry, scientists study and see the unseen bystudying the chemistry of biological processes. This science, along with biophysics, aims to bring a better understanding of how bodies work from how we turn food into energy to how nerve impulses transmit.analytic geometry, branch ofgeometryin which points are represented with respect to a coordinate system, such asCartesian coordinates, and in which the approach to geometric problems is primarily algebraic. Its most common application is in the representation of equations involving two or three variables as curves in two or three dimensions or surfaces in three dimensions. For example, the linear equationax+by+c=0 represents a straight line in thexy-plane, and the linear equationax+by+cz+d=0 represents a plane in space, wherea, b, c,anddare constant numbers (coefficients). In this way a geometric problem can be translated into an algebraic problem and the methods of algebra brought to bear on its solution. Conversely, the solution of a problem in algebra, such as finding the roots of an equation or system of equations, can be estimated or sometimes given exactly by geometric means, e.g., plotting curves and surfaces and determining points of intersection. In plane analytic geometry a line is frequently described in terms of its slope, which expresses its inclination to the coordinate axes; technically, the slopemof a straight line is the (trigonometric) tangent of the angle it makes with thex-axis. If the line is parallel to thex-axis, its slope is zero. Two or more lines with equal slopes are parallel to one another. In general, the slope of the line through the points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) is given bym= (y2-y1) / (x2-x1). The conic sections are treated in analytic geometry as the curves corresponding to the general quadratic equationax2+bxy+cy2+dx+ey+f=0, wherea, b, fare constants anda, b,andcare not all zero. In solid analytic geometry the orientation of a straight line is given not by one slope but by its direction cosines, , , and , the cosines of the angles the line makes with thex-, y-,andz-axes, respectively; these satisfy the relationship 2+2+2= 1. In the same way that the conic sections are studied in two dimensions, the 17 quadric surfaces, e.g., the ellipsoid, paraboloid, and elliptic paraboloid, are studied in solid analytic geometry in terms of the general equationax2+by2+cz2+dxy+exz+fyz+px+qy+rz+s=0. The methods of analytic geometry have been generalized to four or more dimensions and have been combined with other branches of geometry. Analytic geometry was introduced by RenDescartesin 1637 and was of fundamental importance in the development of thecalculusby Sir Isaac Newton and G. W. Leibniz in the late 17th cent. More recently it has served as the basis for the modern development and exploitation ofalgebraic geometry. circle, closed plane curve consisting of all points at a given distance from some fixed point, called the center. A circle is a conic section cut by a plane perpendicular to the axis of the cone. The term circle is also used to refer to the region enclosed by the curve, more properly called a circular region. The radius of a circle is any line segment connecting the center and a point on the curve; the term is also used for the length r of this segment, i.e., the common distance of all points on the curve from the center. Similarly, the circumference of a circle is either the curve itself or its length of arc. A line segment whose two ends lie on the circumference is a chord; a chord through the center is the diameter. A secant is a line of indefinite length intersecting the circle at two p