圓柱坐標(biāo)型工業(yè)機(jī)器人設(shè)計(jì),圓柱,坐標(biāo),工業(yè),機(jī)器人,設(shè)計(jì) Full-Pose Calibration of a Robot Manipulator Using a Coordinate- Measuring Machine Morris R. Driels, Lt W. Swayze USN and Lt S. Potter USN Department of Mechanical Engineering, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, California, US The work reported in this article addresses the kinematic calibration of a robot manipulator using a coordinate measuring machine (CMM) which is able to obtain the full pose of the end-effector. A kinematic model is developed for the manipulator, its relationship to the world coordinate frame and the tool. The derivation of the tool pose from experimental measurements is discussed, as is the identification methodology. A complete simulation of the experiment is performed, allowing the observation strategy to be defined. The experimental work is described together with the parameter identification and accuracy verification. The principal conclusion is that the method is able to calibrate the robot successfully, with a resulting accuracy approaching that of its repeatability. Keywords: Robot calibration; Coordinate measurement; Parameter identification; Simulation study; Accuracy enhancement 1. Introduction It is well known that robot manipulators typically have reasonable repeatability (0.3 ram), yet exhibit poor accuracy (10.0 mm). The process by which robots may be calibrated in order to achieve accuracies approaching that of the manipulator is also well understood [1]. In the calibration process, several sequential steps enable the precise kinematic parameters of the manipulator to be identified, leading to improved accuracy. These steps may be described as follows: 1. A kinematic model of the manipulator and the calibration process itself is developed and is usually accomplished with standard kinematic modelling tools [2]. The resulting model is used to define an error quantity based on a nominal (manufacturer's) kinematic parameter set, and an unknown, actual parameter set which is to be identified. 2. Experimental measurements of the robot pose (partial or complete) are taken in order to obtain data relating to the actual parameter set for the robot. 3. The actual kinematic parameters are identified by systematically changing the nominal parameter set so as to reduce the error quantity defined in the modelling phase. One approach to achieving this identification is determining the analytical differential relationship between the pose variables P and the kinematic parameters K in the form of a Jacobian, and then inverting the equation to calculate the deviation of the kinematic parameters from their nominal values Alternatively, the problem can be viewed as a multidimensional optimisation task, in which the kinematic parameter set is changed in order to reduce some defined error function to zero. This is a standard optimisation problem and may be solved using well-known [3] methods. 4. The final step involves the incorporation of the identified kinematic parameters in the controller of the robot arm, the details of which are rather specific to the hardware of the system under study. This paper addresses the issue of gathering the experimental data used in the calibration process. Several methods are available to perform this task, although they vary in complexity, cost and the time taken to acquire the data. Examples of such techniques include the use of visual and automatic theodolites [4, 5, 6], servocontrolled laser interferometers [7], acoustic sensors [8] and vidual sensors [9]. An ideal measuring system would acquire the full pose of the manipulator (position and orientation), because this would incorporate the maximum information for each position of the arm. All of the methods mentioned above use only the partial pose, requiring more data to be taken for the calibration process to proceed. 2. Theory In the method described in this paper, for each position in which the manipulator is placed, the full pose is measured, although several intermediate measurements have to be taken in order to arrive at the pose. The device used for the pose measurement is a coordinate-measuring machine (CMM), which is a three-axis, prismatic measuring system with a quoted accuracy of 0.01 ram. The robot manipulator to be calibrated, a PUMA 560, is placed close to the CMM, and a special end-effector is attached to the flange. Fig. 1 shows the arrangement of the various parts of the system. In this section the kinematic model will be developed, the pose estimation algorithms explained, and the parameter identification methodology outlined. 2.1 Kinematic Parameters In this section, the basic kinematic structure of the manipulator will be specified, its relation to a user-defined world coordinate system discussed, and the end-point toil modelled. From these models, the kinematic parameters which may be identified using the proposed technique will be specified, and a method for determining those parameters described. The fundamental modelling tool used to describe the spatial relationship between the various objects and locations in the manipulator workspace is the Denavit-Hartenberg method [2], with modifications proposed by Hayati [10], Mooring [11] and Wu [12] to account for disproportional models [13] when two consecutive joint axes are nominally parallel. As shown in Fig. 2, this method places a coordinate frame on each object or manipulator link of interest, and the kinematics are defined by the homogeneous transformation required to change one coordinate frame into the next. This transformation takes the familiar form The above equation may be interpreted as a means to transform frame n-1 into frame n by means of four out of the five operations indicated. It is known that only four transformations are needed to locate a coordinate frame with respect to the previous one. When consecutive axes are not parallel, the value of/3. is defined to be zero, while for the case when consecutive axes are parallel, d. is the variable chosen to be zero. When coordinate frames are placed in conformance with the modified Denavit-Hartenberg method, the transformations given in the above equation will apply to all transforms of one frame into the next, and these may be written in a generic matrix form, where the elements of the matrix are functions of the kinematic parameters. These parameters are simply the variables of the transformations: the joint angle 0., the common normal offset d., the link length a., the angle of twist a., and the angle /3.. The matrix form is usually expressed as follows: For a serial linkage, such as a robot manipulator, a coordinate frame is attached to each consecutive link so that both the instantaneous position together with the invariant geometry are described by the previous matrix transformation. 'The transformation from the base link to the nth link will therefore be given by Fig. 3 shows the PUMA manipulator with the Denavit-Hartenberg frames attached to each link, together with world coordinate frame and a tool frame. The transformation from the world frame to the base frame of the manipulator needs to be considered carefully, since there are potential parameter dependencies if certain types of transforms are chosen. Consider Fig. 4, which shows the world frame xw, y,, z,, the frame Xo, Yo, z0 which is defined by a DH transform from the world frame to the first joint axis of the manipulator, frame Xb, Yb, Zb, which is the PUMA manufacturer's defined base frame, and frame xl, Yl, zl which is the second DH frame of the manipulator. We are interested in determining the minimum number of parameters required to move from the world frame to the frame x~, Yl, z~. There are two transformation paths that will accomplish this goal: Path 1: A DH transform from x,, y,, z,, to x0, Yo, zo involving four parameters, followed by another transform from xo, Yo, z0 to Xb, Yb, Zb which will involve only two parameters ~b' and d' in the transform Finally, another DH transform from xb, Yb, Zb to Xt, y~, Z~ which involves four parameters except that A01 and 4~' are both about the axis zo and cannot therefore be identified independently, and Adl and d' are both along the axis zo and also cannot be identified independently. It requires, therefore, only eight independent kinematic parameters to go from the world frame to the first frame of the PUMA using this path. Path 2: As an alternative, a transform may be defined directly from the world frame to the base frame Xb, Yb, Zb. Since this is a frame-to-frame transform it requires six parameters, such as the Euler form: The following DH transform from xb, Yb, zb tO Xl, Yl, zl would involve four parameters, but A0~ may be resolved into 4~,, 0b, ~, and Ad~ resolved into Pxb, Pyb, Pzb, reducing the parameter count to two. It is seen that this path also requires eight parameters as in path i, but a different set. Either of the above methods may be used to move from the world frame to the second frame of the PUMA. In this work, the second path is chosen. The tool transform is an Euler transform which requires the specification of six parameters: The total number of parameters used in the kinematic model becomes 30, and their nominal values are defined in Table 1 2.2 Identification Methodology The kinematic parameter identification will be performed as a multidimensional minimisation process, since this avoids the calculation of the system Jacobian. The process is as follows: 1. Begin with a guess set of kinematic parameters, such as the nominal set. 2. Select an arbitrary set of joint angles for the PUMA. 3. Calculate the pose of the PUMA end-effector. 4. Measure the actual pose of the PUMA end-effector for the same set of joint angles. In general, the measured and predicted pose will be different. 5. Modify the kinematic parameters in an orderly manner in order to best fit (in a least-squares sense) the measured pose to the predicted pose. The process is applied not to a single set of joint angles but to a number of joint angles. The total number of joint angle sets required, which also equals the number of physical measurement made, must satisfy where Kp is the number of kinematic parameters to be identified N is the number of measurements (poses) taken Dr represents the number of degrees of freedom present in each measurement In the system described in this paper, the number of degrees of freedom is given by since full pose is measured. In practice, many more measurements should be taken to offset the effect of noise in the experimental measurements. The optimisation procedure used is known as ZXSSO, and is a standard library function in the IMSL package [14]. 2.3 Pose Measurement It is apparent from the above that a means to determine the full pose of the PUMA is required in order to perform the calibration. This method will now be described in detail. The end-effector consists of an arrangement of five precisiontooling balls as shown in Fig. 5. Consider the coordinates of the centre of each ball expressed in terms of the tool frame (Fig. 5) and the world coordinate frame, as shown in Fig. 6. The relationship between these coordinates may be written as where Pi' is the 4 x 1 column vector of the coordinates of the ith ball expressed with respect to the world frame, P~ is the 4 x 1 column vector of the coordinates of the ith ball expressed with respect to the tool frame, and T is the 4 ? 4 homogenious transform from the world frame to the tool frame. then T may be found, and used as the measured pose in the calibration process. It is not quite that simple, however, since it is not possible to invert equation (11) to obtain T. The above process is performed for the four balls, A, B, C and D, and the positions ordered as or in the form Since P', T and P are all now square, the pose matrix may be obtained by inversion In practice it may be difficult for the CMM to access four bails to determine P~ when the PUMA is placed in certain configurations. Three balls are actually measured and a fourth ball is fictitiously located according to the vector cross product Regarding the determination of the coordinates of the centre of a ball based on measured points on its surface, no analytical procedures are available. Another numerical optimisation scheme was used for this purpose such that the penalty function was minimised, where (u, v, w) are the coordinates of the centre of the ball to he determined, (x/, y~, z~) are the coordinates of the ith point on the surface of the ball and r is the ball diameter. In the tests performed, it was found sufficient to measure only four points (i = 4) on the surface to determine the ball centre.